Sensors incorporated into tire plies to detect reversible deformation and/or temperature changes

ABSTRACT

Tires including a tire bodies formed of one or more tire plies are disclosed. In some implementations, tire plies may include a temperature sensor that may detect a temperature of a respective tire ply. The temperature sensor may include a ceramic material organized as a matrix and one or more split-ring resonators (SRRs). Each of the SRRs may have a natural resonance frequency configured to shift in response to one or more of a change in an elastomeric property or a change in the temperature of a respective one or more tire plies. The temperature sensor may include an electrically-conductive layer dielectrically separated from a respective one or more SRRs. A thickness each of the SRRs may be approximately between 0.1 micrometers (μm) and 100 μm.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This Patent Application is a continuation-in-part of and claims the benefit of priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/829,355, entitled “TIRES CONTAINING RESONATING CARBON-BASED MICROSTRUCTURES” and filed on Mar. 25, 2020, which claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/824,440, entitled “TUNING RESONANT MATERIALS FOR VEHICLE SENSING” and filed on Mar. 27, 2019, to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/036,118, entitled “CARBON-CONTAINING STICTION SENSORS” and filed on Jun. 8, 2020, to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/094,223, entitled “SENSORS FOR ELASTOMER PROPERTY CHANGE DETECTION” and filed on Oct. 20, 2020, to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/979,215, entitled “WASTE ENERGY HARVESTING AND POWERING IN VEHICLES” and filed on Feb. 20, 2020, and to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/985,550, entitled “RESONANT SERIAL NUMBER IN VEHICLE TIRES” and filed on Mar. 5, 2020, and this Patent Application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/008,262, entitled “RESONANCE SENSING IN TIRES” and filed on Apr. 10, 2020, and this Patent Application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/036,796, entitled “RESONANCE SENSING IN ELASTOMER-CONTAINING PRODUCTS” and filed on Jun. 9, 2020, all of which are assigned to the assignee hereof; the disclosures of all prior Applications are considered part of and are incorporated by reference in this Patent Application.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure generally relates to sensors and, more specifically, to split ring resonators that can detect various properties of tires of a vehicle.

DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ART

Advances in vehicle power types, including hybrid and electric-only systems, have created an opportunity for further technological integration. This is true especially as modern vehicles transition into fully autonomous driving and navigation, where technology (as opposed to trained and capable humans) must routinely monitor vehicle component performance and reliability to ensure continued vehicle occupant safety and comfort. Traditional systems, such as tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMSs), may fail to provide the high degree of fidelity required for high-performance (such as racing) or fully autonomous driving applications. Such applications can present unique challenges, such as rapid vehicle component (such as tire) wear encountered in demanding driving or racing or failing to have a human driver present capable of checking tire performance during vehicle operation.

SUMMARY

This Summary is provided to introduce in a simplified form a selection of concepts that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter. Moreover, the systems, methods, and devices of this disclosure each have several innovative aspects, no single one of which is solely responsible for the desirable attributes disclosed herein.

One innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this disclosure may be implemented as a tire including a temperature sensor. In one implementation, the tire may have a tire body formed of one or more tire plies. Any of the tire plies may have a temperature sensor that may detect a temperature of a respective tire ply, e.g., in which the temperature sensor is installed and/or incorporated. In some aspects, the temperature sensor may include a ceramic material organized as a matrix a carbonaceous layer having a thickness in contact with the ceramic material, and split-ring resonators (SRRs). Each SRR may have a natural resonance frequency that may proportionately shift in response to one or more of a change in an elastomeric property of a respective one or more tire plies or a change in the temperature. For example, the elastomeric property may include one or more of a reversible deformation, stress, or strain. An electrically-conductive metal-containing layer may be in contact with each SRR.

In one implementation, the SRRs may include a first split-ring resonator (SRR) with first carbon particles. In some aspects, the first carbon particles may uniquely resonate in response to an electromagnetic ping. The unique resonation may be based at least in part on a concentration level of the first carbon particles within the first SRR. In some implementations, the SRRs may include a second SRR adjacent to the first SRR, where the second SRR includes second carbon particles that may uniquely resonate in response to the electromagnetic ping. The unique resonation may be based at least in part on a concentration level of the second carbon particles within the second SRR.

In some implementations, the first carbon particles may include first aggregates forming a first porous structure. The second carbon particles may include second aggregates forming a second porous structure, where the first and second porous structures may have mesoscale structuring. In one implementation, the first SRR and the second SRR may be three-dimensionally (3D) printed onto a surface of the tire ply. The first SRR may resonate at a first frequency in response to the electromagnetic ping, and the second SRR may resonate at a second frequency in response to the electromagnetic ping, where the first frequency may be different than the second frequency. In some aspects, each of the first frequency and the second frequency may be associated with an encoded serial number.

In some implementations, an amplitude of resonance of the first SRR or the second SRR may be indicative of an extent of wear of the tire ply. For example, an extent of shift of the natural resonance frequency in response to the electromagnetic ping of the first SRR and the second SRR may be indicative of an amount of deformation of the tire ply. In one implementation, each of the first SRR and the second SRR may have an attenuation point, which may be associated with a frequency response to the electromagnetic ping.

In one implementation, each of the first carbon particles and second carbon particles may be chemically bonded with the tire ply. In some aspects, each of the first SRR and the second SRR may have a principal dimension associated with one or more of an S-parameter or a frequency of the electromagnetic ping. At least one of the first SRR or the second SRR may have one of an oval shape, an elliptical shape, a rectangular shape, a square shape, a circle shape, or a curved line. In some aspects, one or more of the first SRR or the second SRR include a cylindrical SRR.

In one implementation, the first SRR may be positioned outside the second SRR and the first SRR and the second SRR may be disposed within an inner liner of the tire. In some aspects, the tire may have a treaded side, such that the SRRs disposed within a vicinity of the treaded side. In some aspects, each of the first SRR and the second SRR may have a negative effective permeability. In one implementation, each of the first SRR and the second SRR includes one or more of electrically-conducting materials, metals, electrically-conducting non-metals, dielectric materials, or semiconducting materials. In some aspects, the first SRR and the second SRR may be positioned or arranged as a pair of concentric rings.

Details of one or more implementations of the subject matter described in this disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims. Note that the relative dimensions of the following figures may not be drawn to scale.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 presents an in-situ vehicle control system including various sensors formed of carbon-containing composites tuned to demonstrate desirable radio frequency (RF) signal resonance and response upon being pinged, according to some implementations.

FIG. 2 depicts a signal processing system that analyzes emitted and/or returned RF signals that are frequency-shifted and/or attenuated by sensors formed of carbon-containing tuned RF resonance materials, according to some implementations.

FIG. 3 illustrates a signature classification system, according to some implementations.

FIG. 4 depicts a series of tire condition parameters that are sensed from changes in RF resonance of various layers of carbon-containing tuned RF resonance materials, according to some implementations.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic diagram of an apparatus used for tuning multiple plies of a tire by selecting carbon-containing tuned RF resonance materials from separate and independent reactors for incorporation into the body of a single tire assembly, according to some implementations.

FIGS. 6 and 7 depict sets of example condition signatures that may be emitted from new tires formed of layers of carbon-containing tuned RF resonance materials, according to some implementations.

FIG. 8 depicts a top-down schematic view of an example split-ring resonator (SRR) configuration including two concentric SRRs, according to some implementations.

FIG. 9 depicts a schematic diagram showing a complete tire diagnostics system and apparatus for tire wear sensing through impedance-based spectroscopy, according to some implementations.

FIGS. 10 and 11 depict schematic diagrams relating to tire information transferred via telemetry into a navigation system, as well as equipment for manufacturing printed carbon-based materials, according to some implementations.

FIG. 12 depicts resonant serial number-based digital encoding of vehicle tires through tire tread layer and/or tire body ply-print encoding, according to some implementations.

FIG. 13 illustrates resonance mechanisms that contribute to the ensemble phenomenon arising from different proximally-present resonator types, according to some implementations.

FIG. 14 is an example temperature sensor including one or more of the presently disclosed SRRs, according to some implementations.

FIG. 15 is a graph of measured resonant signature signal intensity (in decibels, dB) relative to height (in millimeters, mm) of tire tread layer loss, according to some implementations.

FIG. 16 is a graph of measured resonant signature signal intensity (in decibels, dB) relative to the natural resonance frequency of SRRs showing resonance response shift proportionate to tire ply deformation, according to some implementations.

FIG. 17 is a graph of signal intensity relative to chirp signal frequency for SRRs that may resonate corresponding to an encoded serial number, according to some implementations.

FIG. 18A through FIG. 18Y depict carbonaceous materials used as a formative material to produce any of the presently disclosed resonators (e.g., SRRs), according to some implementations.

Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various implementations of the subject matter disclosed herein relate generally to deploying durable sensors (e.g., split-ring resonators, SRRs), made from carbonaceous microstructures. The sensors may be incorporated within vehicle components, e.g., within the plies of the body of a conventional, currently commercially available pneumatic (referring to air, nitrogen or other gas-filled) tire, next-generation airless solid tires, as well as in other positions, e.g., within vehicle bodywork. The sensors may be embedded within portions of tire plies and/or tire tread, e.g., rubber in contact with pavement or ground. Routine tire usage results in degradation of contact surfaces, eventually resulting in bald (treadles) tires incapable of adequately adhering to road surfaces, especially in inclement weather conditions, e.g., snow, heavy rain, etc. Deterioration of tire plies containing sensors produces corresponding detectable changes in sensor response behavior, e.g., relative to both forward rotation and tire strain encountered in lateral tire sliding, e.g., “drifting,” a common maneuver in some enthusiast communities. In this way, both routine (e.g., forward-rotation) tire deterioration can be detected by changes in expected sensor resonance response behavior and loss of tire stiction (e.g., during drift maneuvers) by observing shifts in expected sensor resonance response behavior (e.g., as accomplished through frequency shift-keying, a concept explained further below). Stiction, as commonly understood, may imply the static friction that needs to be overcome to enable relative motion of stationary objects in contact, e.g., as may be encountered during performance driving maneuvers involving lateral movement, such as drifting. This is comparison to kinetic and/or dynamic friction, which may imply concurrent movement between both contacting surfaces, etc.

The carbonaceous materials can be tuned during synthesis to achieve specific expected radio frequency (RF) signal shift (referring to frequency shift) and signal attenuation (referring to the diminishment of signal magnitude) behavior relative to RF signals emitted. Equipment capable of emitting the RF signals may include, for example, a transceiver mounted within one or wheel wells of a vehicle equipped with the disclosed systems and/or by an inductor-capacitor (LC) circuit, also referred to (interchangeably) as a tank circuit, LC circuit or resonator. The presently disclosed implementations do not require moving parts and are thereby less susceptible to wear and tear resultant of routine road usage. SRRs function with pre-existing vehicle electronic components. Target RF resonance frequency values of disclosed ingredient carbonaceous materials may be tuned within a reaction chamber or a reactor to demonstrate interaction to yield target performance characteristics. The characteristics may be for any number of applications, e.g., knobby, low-pressure off-road tires as well as race-track only slicks without tread. SRRs formed of unique carbonaceous materials demonstrate frequency shifting and/or signal attenuation at specified radio frequencies (RF), e.g., 0.01 GHz to 100 GHz, which may be tuned pursuant to desired applications. Regarding tunability, the carbonaceous materials may be innately grown (e.g., self-nucleated) in a reactor from a carbon-containing gaseous species without requiring a seed particle to generate ornate 3D structures.

Changes in the environment (e.g., snow, rain, etc.) surrounding a vehicle equipped with the disclosed materials and systems may affect the resonance, frequency shifting, and/or signal attenuation behavior of the SRRs. As a result, even minute tire condition changes can be detected and communicated to the driver. For example, should a tire ply containing one or more SRRs contact a road surface (e.g., forward-rotation) and thereby deteriorate over time, resonance of that SRR within the deteriorating tire ply may change. Further, other detectable changes may occur during drifting (e.g., sideways movement) scenarios, such that signal response of the affected tire ply and/or tread layer containing the SRR may indicate the presence or absence of that tread layer, as well as the degree of wear. As a result, SRRs may accurately and precisely detect both abrupt or gradual transitions in weather or other environmental conditions (e.g., performance driving maneuvers).

Detectable changes and/or shifts in in RF range resonant frequency response of SRRs may detected by stimulating the RF resonant materials within each SRR with an electromagnetic (EM) signal having a known frequency. In some configurations, EM signals may be initially output by an antennae (also mounted on the vehicle) and/or further propagated by patterned resonant circuits (referred to herein as “resonators”, which can be 3D printed onto the tire body plies) mounted within one or more wheel wells. In this way, attenuation and/or frequency shifts associated with respective SRRs relative to the emitted signal may be electronically observed and analyzed to gauge current environmental conditions. In addition, changes in the RF resonant frequency (or frequencies) may be observed and compared to known and discrete calibration points to determine tire air pressure as measured at one or more defined detection points on the vehicle's bodywork at a given moment in time.

Conventional use of tires, such as that encountered during on-road driving for most road tires, or off- for off-road tires, can cause slight deformations of portions of the tire, which can cause a change in the natural RF resonance frequency of a respective SRR at the time y being ‘pinged’ by a RF signal). Such changes in the natural resonance frequencies (as associated with presently disclosed carbons forming various SRRs can be detected and compared to known calibration points to determine conditions inside the tire. Systems employing antennae in combination with the presently disclosed SRRs incorporated within tire plies may accommodate both the sensing of tire ply property changes and reporting-out to associated telemetry equipment in the vehicle.

Presently disclosed SRRs may be tuned to detect even minute changes in physical properties of respective tire plies, including changes due to air pressure on a vehicle skin, or due to any external application of forces in/on a tire. Such changes can be detected by “pinging” (e.g., e.g., emitting, and later observation and analysis of RF signals) for then processing the unique set of detected properties (e.g., the “signature”) of a given tire ply, tread layer, or other surface or region as demonstrated by, for example, frequency domain return. Various mechanisms for calibrating an observed signal signature and processing a return signature are discussed. Methods for fabrication of a tire with passive embedded sensors in the form of tuned carbon structures that interact with the elastomer are disclosed. For example, mechanisms used for making a tire from multiple plies may influences SRR natural resonance frequency behavior. In addition, tires may be constructed including multiple tire plies, each tire ply incorporating a distinct tuned carbon having a unique tuned carbonaceous microstructure, which may be micron-sized, or alternatively in any one or more of the nanometer, micro, even meso-particle sizes up to the millimeter (mm) level.

Disclosed SRRs may permit for self-powered signatures from resonance in the GHz and MHz range as made possible by tribological power generators (e.g., generating electric current upon, for example, rotation of a vehicle tire and its repeated friction and/or contact with the pavement or ground). Such tribological components can be integrated or otherwise incorporated within multiple steel belts in between elastomer layers in one or more vehicle tire plies. In this way, the SRRs may be charged (and/or powered) by the triboelectric generator for the resonator to resonate (and thus emit RF signals) and discharge. The resonator can be configured to accommodate repeated charge-discharge cycles and be in any one or more of a variety of shapes and/or patterns, including ovals that have an inherent resonant value or properties (based on its formative materials and/or construction).

Changes in the shape or orientation of the resonator may result in a corresponding change of any associated resonation constants. As a result, any change in tire physical properties due to deformation, e.g., under static conditions like internal tire pressure, or under dynamic conditions such as those encountered while running over Bots Dots, can change the shape or orientation of a respective SRR. Different resonator patterns (e.g., in addition, or the alternative, to SRRs) can be used to respond with greater sensitivity to one type of deformation over another (such as referring to lateral deformation encountered while moving around a curve compared to vertical motion encountered while running over gravel or a rough surface). In addition to configurations where SRRs change in signal response behavior based on tire deformation, SRRs may also electronically communicate with other signal attenuation detection capabilities, e.g., as associated with a digital signal processing, DSP, computer chip and/or transducers placed within the wheel well, or even within the rim, of a wheel. DSP may function with external transceiver (a semiconductor chip) for both stimulus and response; while option. SRRs may also communicate with tribological generators incorporated in individual tire plies and demonstrate resonance behavior that can detected by an external receiver.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram a vehicle condition detection system 1A00 e.g., intended to be equipped onto a vehicle such as an automobile and/or truck. The vehicle condition detection system 1A00 may include sensors, such as tuned RF resonance components 108 (e.g., split-ring resonators, such as that shown in FIG. 8 ). Each of the as tuned RF resonance components 108 may be formed from multiple carbon-based microstructural materials, aggregates, agglomerations, and/or the like such as those disclosed by Stowell, et al., in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/785,020 entitled “3D Self-Assembled Multi-Modal Carbon-Based Particle” filed on Feb. 7, 2020 (referred to collectively as “carbonaceous materials”). The tuned RF resonance components 108 can be incorporated into any one or more of belt sensors 104, hose sensors 105, tire sensors 106, and transceiver antennas 102 on a vehicle, such as a conventional driver-driven automobile or a fully-autonomous transport pod or vehicle capable of operating to move vehicle occupants without a human driver.

The tuned RF resonance components 108 can be configured to electronically and/or wirelessly communicate, such as by measurement of signal frequency shift or attenuation, with any one or more of a transceiver 114, a vehicle central processing unit 116, a vehicle sensor data receiving unit 118, a vehicle actuators control unit 120, and actuators 122 including doors, windows, locks 125, engine controls 126, navigation/heads-up displays 128, suspension control 129, and an airfoil trim 130. The tuned RF resonance components 108 can cause a shift in observed frequencies of emitted RF signals (referred to as a “frequency-shift”, implying any change in frequency) via emitted RF signals 110 and/or returned RF signals 112 with the transceiver 114. Reference to the returned RF signals 112 corresponding to emitted RF signals 110 may refer to the electronic detection of frequency shift or attenuation of the emitted RF signals 110 relative to one or more of the tuned RF resonance components 108 integrated into any one or more of the belt sensors 104 and/or the like (e.g., rather than an actual physical reflection or return of a signal from a sensor). The emitted RF signals 110 and the returned RF signals 112 can be in communication with (and therefore also assessed by) any one or more of the vehicle central processing unit 116, the vehicle sensor data receiving unit 118, the vehicle actuators control unit 120, and/or the actuators 122. The vehicle condition detection system 100 can be implemented using any suitable combination of software and hardware.

Any one or more of the depicted various sensors of the vehicle condition detection system 100 can be formed of carbon-based microstructures tuned to achieve a specific RF resonance behavior upon being “pinged” (referring to being hit or otherwise contacted by) emitted RF signals. The vehicle condition detection system 100 (or any aspect thereof) can be configured to be implemented in any conceivable vehicle use application, area, or environment, such as during inclement weather conditions including sleet, hail, snow, ice, frost, mud, sand, debris, uneven terrain, water and/or the like.

The tuned RF resonance components 108 can be disposed around and/or on the vehicle (such as within the cabin, engine compartment, or the trunk, or on the body of the vehicle). As shown in FIG. 1A, the tuned RF resonance components can include belt sensors 104, hose sensors 105, tire sensors 106, and transceiver antennas 102, any one or more of which can be implemented in modern vehicles during their production, or (alternatively) retro-fitted to pre-existing vehicles, regardless of their age and/or condition. The tuned RF resonance components 108 can be formed, in part, using readily available materials such as fiberglass (such as, for airfoils) or rubber (such as, for tires) or glass (such as, for windshields). These conventional materials can be combined with carbon-based materials, growths, agglomerates, aggregates, sheets, particles and/or the like, such as those self-nucleated in-flight in a reaction chamber or reactor from a carbon-containing gaseous species and formulated to: (1) improve the mechanical (such as tensile, compressive, shear, strain, deformation and/or the like) strength of a composite material in which they are incorporated; and/or, (2) to resonate at a particular frequency or set of frequencies (within the range of 10 GHz to 100 GHz). Variables that dominate RF resonance properties and behavior of a material can be controlled independently from the variables responsible for control of material strength.

Radio Frequency (RF) based stimulation (such as that emitted by the transceiver 114 or emitted by a resonator) can be used to emit RF signals to the tuned RF resonance components 108, the actuators 122 (and/or the like, such as sensors implemented in or on the tuned RF resonance components 108) to detect their respective resonance frequency or frequencies, as well as frequency shifts and patterns observed in the attenuation of emitted signals (which may be affected by internal or external conditions). For example, if a tuned RF resonance component (such as the tire sensors 106) has been specially prepared (referred to as being “tuned”) to resonate at a frequency of approximately 3 GHz, then the tire sensors 106 can emit sympathetic resonance or sympathetic vibrations (referring to a harmonic phenomenon wherein a formerly passive string or vibratory body responds to external vibrations to which it has a harmonic likeness) when stimulated by a 3 GHz RF signal.

These sympathetic vibrations can occur at the stimulated frequency as well in overtones or sidelobes deriving from the fundamental 3 GHz tone. If a tuned resonance component (of the tuned RF resonance components 108) has been tuned to resonate at 2 GHz, then when the tuned resonance component is stimulated by a 2 GHz RF signal, that tuned resonance component will emit sympathetic vibrations as so described. These sympathetic vibrations will occur at the stimulated frequency as well as in overtones or sidelobes (in engineering, referring to local maxima of the far field radiation pattern of an antenna or other radiation source, that are not the main lobe) deriving from the fundamental 2 GHz tone. Many additional tuned resonance components can be situated proximally to an RF emitter. An RF emitter might be controlled to first emit a 2 GHz ping, followed by a 3 GHz ping, followed by a 4 GHz ping, and so on. This succession of pings at different and increasing frequencies may be referred to as a “chirp”.

Adjacent tire plies (such as those in contact with each other) within a tire body, such as that generally shown by FIGS. 3F1-3F2, can have varying concentration levels or configurations of carbon-based microstructures to define sensors incorporated within that (referring to the respective) tire body ply and/or tread layer to resonate at varying distinct frequencies that are not harmonic with one-another. That is, non-harmonic plies can ensure a distinct and easily recognizable detection of a particular tire body ply and/or tread layer (or other surface or material) relative to others with minimal risk of confusion due to signal interference caused by (or otherwise associated with) harmonics.

The transceiver 114 (and/or a resonator, not shown in FIG. 1A) can be configured to transmit the emitted RF signals 110 to any one or more of the tuned RF resonance components 108 to digitally recognize frequency shift and/or attenuation of the returned RF signals 112 from any one or more of the tuned RF resonance components 108. Such “returned” signals 112 can be processed into digital information that can be electronically communicated to a vehicle central processing unit 116, that interacts with a vehicle sensor data receiving unit 118 and/or a vehicle actuators control unit 120, which send further vehicle performance related signals based on sensor data received. The returned signals 112 ₀ can at least partially control the actuators 122. That is, the vehicle actuators control unit 120 can control the actuators 122 to operate any one or more of the doors, windows, locks 124, the engine controls 126, the navigation/heads-up displays 128, the suspension control 129, and/or the airfoil trim 130 according to feedback received from the vehicle sensor data receiving unit 118 regarding vehicle component wear or degradation as indicated by the tuned RF components in communication with the transceiver 114.

Detection of road debris and inclement weather conditions upon monitoring behavior (such as frequency shift and/or attenuation) of the returned RF signals 111 can, for example, result in the actuators 122 triggering a corresponding change in the suspension control 129. Such changes can, for example, include softening suspension settings to accommodate driving over the road debris, while later tightening suspension settings to accommodate enhanced vehicle responsiveness as may be necessary to travel during heavy rain (and thus low traction) conditions. The variations of such control by the vehicle actuators control unit 120 are many, where any conceivable condition exterior to the vehicle can be detected by the transceiver (as demonstrated by frequency shifting and/or attenuation of the emitted RF signals 110 and/or the returned RF signals 112).

Any of the tuned RF resonance components 108 forming the described sensors can be tuned to resonate when stimulated at particular frequencies, where a defined shift in frequency or frequencies (as caused by the carbon-based microstructures) can form one or more signal signatures indicative of the material, or condition of the material, into which the sensor is incorporated.

Time variance or deviation (TDEV) (referring to the time stability of phase x versus observation interval τ of the measured clock source; the time deviation thus forms a standard deviation type of measurement to indicate the time instability of the signal source) of frequency shifts in the returned RF signals 112 (such as that shown in a signal signature) can correspond to time variant changes in the environment of the sensor and/or time variant changes in the sensor itself. Accordingly, signal processing systems (such as any one or more of the vehicle central processing unit 116, the vehicle sensor data receiving unit 118, and/or the vehicle actuators control unit 120, etc.) can be configured to analyze signals (such as the emitted RF signals 110 and returned RF signals 112) associated with the sensors according to TDEV principles. Results of such analysis (such as a signature analysis) can be delivered to the vehicle central processing unit 116, which (in turn) can communicate commands to the vehicle actuators control unit 120 for appropriate responsive action. In some configurations such responsive action by the actuators 122 can involve at least some human driver input, while in other configurations the vehicle condition detection system 100 can function entirely in a self-contained manner allowing for a so-equipped vehicle to address component performance issues as they arise in an entirely driverless setting. In addition, the vehicle central processing unit 116 may electronically communicate with one or more upstream components (e.g., computational equipment associated with racing applications housed in stationary areas) and/or a racing mission control unit 119 responsible for intake and/or processing of all data associated with the tuned RF resonance components 108.

FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a signal processing system 200, which can include surface sensors 260 and embedded sensors 270, any one or more of which may electronically communicate with the other concerning environmental changes 250 for a so-equipped vehicle (referring to a vehicle equipped with the surface sensors 260 and the embedded sensors 270). The signal processing system 200 may also include a transceiver 214, a signature analysis module 254, and a vehicle central processing unit 216, any one or more of which is in electronic communication with the other.

In some implementations, embedded sensors 270 (which can be embedded within materials such as tire plies) can employ and/or be powered by self-powered telemetry including tribological energy generators (not shown in FIG. 2 ) also incorporated within the material enclosed the respective sensor. Accordingly, the tribological energy generators can generate usable electric current and/or power by harvesting static charge buildup between, for example, a rotating tire or wheel and the pavement it contacts, to power a resonant circuit (to be described in further detail herein), which can then resonate to emit a RF signal at a known frequency. As a result, an externally-mounted transceiver unit (such as that mounted within each wheel well of a vehicle) can emit RF signals which are further propagated by the resonant circuits that are tribologically-powered and embedded in the plies of a tire body in this configuration. Frequency shifts and/or attenuation of the magnitude of the emitted signals are likewise received and analyzed, for example, by a signature analysis module 254 and/or a vehicle central processing unit 216.

Self-powered telemetry (referring to collection of measurements or other data at remote or inaccessible points and their automatic transmission to receiving equipment for monitoring) can be incorporated in vehicle tires. Self-powering telemetry, as referred to herein, includes exploiting tribological charge generation inside a tire, storage of that charge, and later discharge of the stored charge to or through a resonant circuit, to make use of the “ringing” (referring to oscillation of the resonant circuit responsible for further emission of RF signals) that occurs during discharge of the resonant circuit (referring to an electric circuit consisting of an inductor, represented by the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the letter C, connected together, used to generate RF signals at a particular frequency or frequencies).

Ping stimulus can be provided, generally, in one of two possible configurations of the presently disclosed vehicle component wear detection systems, including reliance on signals or ‘pings’ generated by a stimulus source, such as a conventional transceiver, located outside the tire (or other vehicle component intended for monitoring regarding wear from ongoing use) such as being incorporated within each wheel well of a so-equipped vehicle; or usage of an intra-tire (referring to also being embedded in the tire plies, similar to the sensors having carbon-based microstructures) tribological energy generation devices that harvest energy resultant from otherwise wasted frictional energy between the rotating wheel and/or tire and the ground or pavement in contact therewith. Tribology, as commonly understood and as referred to herein, implies the study of the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion. Such tribological energy generation devices can provide electrical power to intra-tire resonance devices which in turn self-emit tire property telemetry.

Either of the above-discussed two ‘ping’ stimulus generators or providers can have complex resonance frequencies (CRf) components ranging from approximately 10 to 99 GHz (due, for example, resonance frequency of small dimensions of structures like graphene platelets) as well as lower frequency resonance in Khz range due to the relatively much larger dimensions of the discussed intra-tire resonance. Generally, CRf can be equated to a function of elastomer component innate resonance frequency, carbon component innate resonance frequency, ratio/ensemble of the constituent components, and the geometry of the intra-tire resonance device.

The signal processing system 200 functions to analyze a signal signature (defined by digitally observing frequency shifting and/or attenuation of any one or more of the emitted RF signals 210 and/or returned RF signals 212) once sensors formed of carbon-based microstructures have been stimulated. As a result of stimulation with a chirp signal sensor that resonate at one of the chirp/ping frequencies “respond” by resonating at or near its corresponding tuned frequency, shifting the emitted frequency, and/or attenuating the amplitude of the emitted signal. When an environmental change (such as that resulting in the wear of a tire body ply and/or tread layer) occurs while the chirp/ping is emitted, “returned” signals can monitored for variations in modulation—either higher or lower than the tuned frequency. Accordingly, the transceiver 214 can be configured to receive returned RF signals 212 that are representative of the surfaces that they are pinged on or against, etc.

The foregoing chirp/ping signals can be emitted (such as by non-audible RF signal, pulse, vibration and/or the like transmission) by the transceiver 214. Also, the “return” signals can be received by the transceiver 214. As shown, chirp signals can occur in a repeating sequence of chirps (such as, the emitted RF signals 210). For example, a chirp signal sequence might be formed of a pattern comprising a 1 GHz ping, followed by a 2 GHz ping, followed by a 3 GHz ping, and so on. The entire chirp signal sequence can be repeated in its entirety continuously. There can be brief periods between each ping such that the returned signals from the resonant materials (returned RF signals 212) can be received immediately after the end of a ping. Alternatively, or in addition, signals corresponding to ping stimulus and signals of the observed “response” can occur concurrently and/or along the same general pathway or route. The signature analysis module can employ digital signal processing techniques to distinguish signals of the observed “response” from the ping signals. In situations where the returned response comprises energy across many different frequencies (such as, overtones, sidelobes, etc.), a notch filter can be used to filter the stimulus. Returned signals that are received by the transceiver can be sent to the signature analysis module 254, which in turn can send processed signals to vehicle central processing unit 216. The foregoing discussion of FIG. 2 includes discussion of sensors formed of carbon-containing tuned resonance materials and can also refer to sensing laminates as well.

Disclosed sensors may be incorporated into tire layers, e.g., including layers of resin can be layered interstitially between additional layers of carbon fiber within tire plies. Each layer of carbon-containing resin can be formulated differently to resonate at a different expected or desired tuned frequency. The physical phenomenon of material resonation can be described with respect to a corresponding molecular composition. For example, a layer having a first defined structure, such as a first molecular structure will resonate at a first frequency, whereas a layer having a second, different molecular structure can resonate at a second, different frequency

Material having a particular molecular structure and contained in a layer will resonate at a first tuned frequency when that layer is in a low energy state and will resonate at a second different frequency when the material in the layer is in an induced higher-energy state. For example, material in a layer that exhibits a particular molecular structure can be tuned to resonate at a 3 GHz when the layer is in a natural, undeformed, low energy state. In contrast, that same layer can resonate at 2.95 GHz when the layer is at least partially deformed from its natural, undeformed, low energy state. As a result, this phenomenon can be adjusted to accommodate the needs for detecting, with a high degree of fidelity and accuracy, even the most minute aberration to, for example, a tire surface contacting against a road surface such as pavement and experiencing enhanced wear at a certain localized region of contact. Race cars racing on demanding race circuits (referring to highly technical, windy tracks featuring tight turns and rapid elevational changes) can benefit from such localized tire wear or degradation information to make informed tire-replacement decisions, even in time-sensitive race-day conditions.

The frequency-shifting phenomenon referred to above (such as transitioning from resonating at a frequency of 3 GHz to 2.95 GHz) is shown and discussed with reference to FIG. 2 . FIG. 2 depicts a frequency-shifting phenomenon as exhibited in a sensing laminate that includes carbon-containing tuned resonance materials. Atoms emit electromagnetic radiation at a natural frequency for a given element. That is, an atom of a particular element has a natural frequency that corresponds to characteristics of the atom. For example, when a Cesium atom is stimulated, a valence electron jumps from a lower energy state (such as, a ground state) to a higher energy state (such as, an excited energy state). When the electron returns to its lower energy state, it emits electromagnetic radiation in the form of a photon. For Cesium, the photon emitted is in the microwave frequency range; at 9.192631770 THz. Structures that are larger than atoms, such as molecules formed of multiple atoms also resonate (such as by emitting electromagnetic radiation) at predictable frequencies. For example, liquid water in bulk resonates at 109.6 THz. Water that is in tension (such as, at the surface of bulk, in various states of surface tension) resonates at 112.6 THz. Carbon atoms and carbon structures also exhibit natural frequencies that are dependent on the structure. For example, the natural resonant frequency of a carbon nanotube (CNT) is dependent on the tube diameter and length of the CNT. Growing a CNT under controlled conditions to control the tube diameter and length leads to controlling the structure's natural resonant frequency. According, synthesizing or otherwise “growing” CNTs is one way to tune to a desired resonant frequency.

Other structures formed of carbon can be formed under controlled conditions. Such structures include but are not limited to carbon nano-onions (CNOs), carbon lattices, graphene, carbon-containing aggregates or agglomerates, graphene-based, other carbon containing materials, engineered nanoscale structures, etc. and/or combinations thereof, any one or of which being incorporated into sensors of vehicle components according to the presently disclosed implementations. Such structures can be formed to resonate at a particular tuned frequency and/or such structures can be modified in post-processing to obtain a desired characteristic or property. For example, a desired property such as a high reinforcement value can be brought about by selection and ratios of combinations of materials and/or by the addition of other materials. Moreover, co-location of multiples of such structures introduces further resonance effects. For example, two sheets of graphene may resonate between themselves at a frequency that is dependent on the length, width, spacing, shape of the spacing and/or other physical characteristics of the sheets and/or their juxtaposition to each other.

As is known in the art, materials have specific, measurable characteristics. This is true for naturally occurring materials as well as for engineered carbon allotropes. Such engineered carbon allotropes can be tuned to exhibit physical characteristics. For example, carbon allotropes can be engineered to exhibit physical characteristics corresponding to: (a) a particular configuration of constituent primary particles; (b) formation of aggregates; and (c) formation of agglomerates. Each of these physical characteristics influence the particular resonant frequencies of materials formed using corresponding particular carbon allotropes.

In addition to tuning a particular carbon-based structure for a particular physical configuration that corresponds to a particular resonant frequency, carbon-containing compounds can be tuned to a particular resonant frequency (or set of resonant frequencies). A set of resonant frequencies is termed a resonance profile. Carbon-containing materials (such as those including carbon-based microstructures) tuned to demonstrate a specific resonance frequency upon being pinged by a RF signal can be tuned to exhibit a particular resonance profile by tailoring specific compounds that make up the materials to have particular electrical impedances. Different electrical impedances in turn correspond to different frequency response profiles.

Impedance describes how difficult it is for an alternating (AC) current to flow through an element. In the frequency domain, impedance is a complex number having a real component and an imaginary component due to the structures behaving as inductors. The imaginary component is an inductive reactance (the opposition of a circuit element to the flow of current due to that element's inductance or capacitance; larger reactance leads to smaller currents for the same voltage applied) component X_(L), which is based on the frequency f and the inductance L of a particular structure: X _(L)=2πfL  (Eq. 1)

As the received frequency increases, the reactance also increases such that at a certain frequency threshold the measured intensity (amplitude) of the emitted signal can attenuate. Inductance L is affected by the electrical impedance Z of a material, where Z is related to the material properties of permeability μ and permittivity ε by the relationship:

$\begin{matrix} {{Z = {\sqrt{\frac{\mu^{\prime} + {j\;\mu^{''}}}{{ɛ^{\prime} + {j\; ɛ^{''}}}\;}} = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_{0}}{ɛ_{0}}}}},} & \left( {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 2} \right) \end{matrix}$

Thus, tuning of material properties changes the electrical impedance Z, which affects the inductance L and consequently affects the reactance X_(L).

Carbon-containing structures such as those disclosed by Anzelmo, et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 10,428,197 entitled “Carbon and Elastomer Integration” issued on Oct. 1, 2019, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety with different inductances can demonstrate different frequency responses (when used to create sensors for the aforementioned systems). That is, a carbon-containing structure with a high inductance L (being based on electrical impedance Z) will reach a certain reactance at a lower frequency than another carbon-containing structure with a lower inductance.

The material properties of permeability, permittivity and conductivity can also be considered when formulating a compound to be tuned to a particular electrical impedance. Still further, it is observed that a first carbon-containing structure will resonate at a first frequency, whereas second carbon-containing structure will resonate at a second frequency when that structure is under tension-inducing conditions, such as when the structure is slightly deformed (such as, thereby slightly changing the physical characteristics of the structure).

Example carbon-containing structures that may resonate at a first frequency, which can be correlated to an equivalent electrical circuit comprising a capacitor C₁ and an inductor L₁. The frequency f₁ is given by the equation:

$\begin{matrix} {f_{1} = \frac{1}{2\;\pi\sqrt{L_{1}C_{1}}}} & \left( {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 3} \right) \end{matrix}$

Deformation of the carbon-containing structure may, in turn, change the inductance and/or capacitance of the structure. The changes can be correlated to an equivalent electrical circuit comprising a capacitor C₂ and an inductor L₂. The frequency f₂ is given by the equation:

$\begin{matrix} {f_{2} = \frac{1}{2\;\pi\sqrt{L_{2}C_{2}}}} & \left( {{Eq}.\mspace{11mu} 4} \right) \end{matrix}$

FIG. 3 illustrates a signature classification system 300 that processes signals received from sensors formed of carbon-containing tuned resonance materials. The signature classification system 300 can be implemented in any physical environment or weather condition. FIG. 3 relates to incorporating tuned resonance sensing materials into automotive components for classifying signals (such as, signatures) detected by, classified and/or received from sensors installed in vehicles. A ping signal of a selected ping frequency is transmitted at operation 302. The ping signal generation mechanism and the ping transmission mechanism can be performed by any known techniques. For example, a transmitter module can generate a selected frequency of 3 GHz, and radiate that signal using an antenna or multiple antennae. The design and location of the tuned antenna (such as mounted on and/or within any one or more of the wheel wells or a vehicle) can correspond to any tuned antenna geometry, material and/or location such that the strength of the ping is sufficient to induce (RF) resonance in proximate sensors. Several tuned antennae are disposed upon or within structural members that are in proximity to corresponding sensors. As such, when a proximal surface sensor is stimulated by a ping, it resonates back with a signature. That signature can be received (operation 304) and stored in a dataset comprising received signatures 310. A sequence of transmission of a ping, followed by reception of a signature, can be repeated in a loop.

The ping frequency can be changed (operation 308) in iterative passes through the loop. Accordingly, as operation 304 is performed in the loop, operation 304 can store signatures 312, including a first signature 312 ₁, a second signature 312 ₂, up to an N^(th) signature 312 _(N). The number of iterations can be controlled by decision 306. When the “No” branch of decision 306 is taken (such as, when there are no further additional pings to transmit), then the received signatures can be provided (operation 314) to a digital signal processing module (such as, an instance of signature analysis module 154 shown in FIG. 1B). The digital signal processing module classifies the signatures (operation 316) against a set of calibration points 318. The calibrations points can be configured to correspond to particular ping frequencies. For example, calibration points 288 can include a first calibration point 288 ₁ that can correspond to a first ping and first returned signature near 3 GHz, a second calibration point 288 ₂ that can correspond to a second ping and second returned signature near 2 GHz, and so on for any integer value “N” calibration points.

At operation 320, classified signals are sent to a vehicle central processing unit (such as, the vehicle central processing unit 116 of FIG. 1B). The classified signals can be relayed by the vehicle central processing unit to an upstream repository that hosts a computerized database configured to host and/or run machine learning algorithms. Accordingly, a vast amount of stimulus related to signals, classified signals, and signal responses can be captured for subsequent data aggregation and processing. The database can be computationally prepared, referring to as being “trained”, provided a given set of sensed measurements that can be correlated to conditions or diagnoses related to vehicular performance, such as tire degradation due to repeated use. Should, during the operation of the vehicle, the measured deflection (such as, air pressure) of a particular portion of an airfoil component differ from the measured deflection (such as, air pressure) of a different portion of the airfoil component, a potential diagnosis may be that one tire is underinflated and therefore causing vehicle ride height to be non-uniform, resulting in airflow over, on, and/or around the vehicle to demonstrate proportionate non-uniformities, as detected by deflection on the airfoil component. Other potential conditions or diagnoses can be determined by the machine learning system as well. The conditions and/or diagnoses and/or supporting data can be returned to the vehicle to complete a feedback loop. Instrumentation in the vehicle provides visualizations that can be acted upon (such as, by a driver or by an engineer).

FIG. 4 illustrates various physical characteristics or aspects (tire condition parameters 400) pertaining to incorporating tuned resonance sensing materials into automotive components (such as tires). Here, the figure is presented with respect to addressing deployment of survivable sensors in tires, including non-pneumatic tires as well as pneumatic tires. The construction of the tires may correspond to radial tires, bias ply tires, tubeless tires, solid tires, run-flat tires, etc. Tires may be used in any sorts of vehicles and/or equipment and/or accessories pertaining to vehicles. Such vehicles may include aircraft, all-terrain vehicles, automobiles, construction equipment, dump trucks, earthmovers, farm equipment, forklifts, golf carts, harvesters, lift trucks, mopeds, motorcycles, off-road vehicles, racing vehicles, riding lawn mowers, tractors, trailers, trucks, wheelchairs, etc. The tires may, in addition or alternative to that presented, be used in non-motorized vehicles, equipment and accessories such as bicycles, tricycles, unicycles, lawnmowers, wheelchairs, carts, etc.

The parameters shown in FIG. 4 are as an example, and other variants may exist or otherwise be prepared to target specific desirable performance characteristics of many conceivable end-use scenarios, including truck tires designed to offer increased longevity (at the potential expense of road adhesion), or soft racing tires designed to provide maximum road adhesion (at the potential expense of lifespan).

Various carbon structures are used in different formulations with other non-carbon materials integrated into tires, which then undergo mechanical analysis to determine their respective characteristics of the tires. Some of these characteristics can be determined empirically by direct testing, while other characteristics are determined based on measurements and data extrapolation. For example, rolling uniformity can be determined by sensing changes in force when the tire is subjected to rolling over a uniform surface such as a roller, whereas tread life is based on an abrasion test over a short period, the results of which short term test are extrapolated to yield a predicted tread life value.

More tire characteristics can be measured, but some of these measurement techniques can be physically destructive to the tire, and thus measured at a desired point in the life of the tire. In contrast, using survivable sensors embedded in tires allows for such otherwise destructive measurements to be made throughout the entire lifetime of the tire. For example, detection of response signals based on RF signals pinged against sensors e embedded in tires can be used for such sensing. Moreover, each body ply and/or tread layer of a tire can, as discuss, include durable (also referred to as “survivable”) sensors that are tuned to resonate at a particular frequency.

Ply used in a tire can be formulated to combine carbon-containing structures with other materials to achieve a particular material composition that exhibits desired performance (such as handling and longevity) characteristics. The natural resonance frequency (or frequencies) of the particular material composition can be subjected to spectral analysis to develop a spectral profile for the particular material composition. This spectral profile can be used as a calibration baseline for that material. When the body ply and/or tread layer of the tire undergoes deformation, the spectral profile changes, which spectral profile changes can be used as additional calibration points. Many such calibration points can be generated by testing, and such calibration points can in turn be used to gauge deformation.

Analysis of the spectral response results in quantitative measurements of many tire parameters. The tire parameters that can be determined from signature analysis, for example, can include tread life 422, handling at a first temperature 428, handling at a second temperature 426, rolling economy at a first temperature 430, rolling economy at a second temperature 432, rolling uniformity 436, and braking uniformity 438.

Responses, such as those spectrally represented based on return ping signals received from sensors embedded in materials in tire ply, can be representative of the deformation observed. That is, a certain type of tire deformation will correspond with a certain type of specific response, such that a mapping between responses or response types can be done to degradation types. Moreover, time-variant changes in the spectral response of a tire as it undergoes in-situ deformation can be used to determine many ambient conditions. In tires that are constructed using multiple ply, each body ply and/or tread layer can be formulated to exhibit a particular tuned frequency or range of frequencies. For example, FIG. 5 shows a schematic diagram for constructing a tire from multiple ply, each of which has as different a particular tuned frequency or range of frequencies.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic diagram 500 for fine-adjustment, or tuning, of multiple body plies and/or tread layers of a tire by selecting carbon-containing tuned resonance materials for incorporation into a tire assembly or structure, which can be implemented in any environment. FIG. 5 illustrates how to mix different carbons into tire composite formulations that are in turn assembled into a multi-ply tire. The resulting multi-ply tire exhibits the various resonance-sensitive and frequency-shifting characteristics.

Multiple reactors (such as, reactor 552 ₁, reactor 552 ₂, reactor 552 ₃, and reactor 552 ₄) each produce (or otherwise transport or provide) a particular carbon additive/filler to the network that is tuned to yield a particular defined spectral profile. The carbon additives (such as, first tuned carbons 554, second tuned carbons 556, third tuned carbons 558, and fourth tuned carbons 560) can mixed with other (carbon-based or non-carbon based) compositions 550. Any known techniques can be used to mix, heat, pre-process, post-process or otherwise combine the particular carbon additives with the other compositions. Mixers (such as, mixer 562 ₁, mixer 562 ₂, mixer 562 ₃, and mixer 562 ₄) are presented to show how different tuned carbons can be introduced into various components of a tire. Other techniques for tire assembly may involve other construction techniques and/or other components that comprise the tire. Any known techniques for multi-ply tires can be used. Moreover, the spectral profile of a particular body ply and/or tread layer (such as a group of body plies and/or tread layers 568, including a body ply and/or tread layer 568 ₁, a body ply and/or tread layer 568 ₂, a body ply and/or tread layer 568 ₃, and a body ply and/or tread layer 568 ₄) can be determined based on the characterization of a particular body ply and/or tread layer formulation. For example, based on a stimulus and response characterization, a first body ply and/or tread layer formulation (such as, body ply and/or tread layer formulation 564 ₁) might exhibit a first spectral profile, whereas a second body ply and/or tread layer formulation (such as, body ply and/or tread layer formulation 564 ₂) might exhibit a second spectral profile.

The resulting different formulations (such as, body ply and/or tread layer formulation 564 ₁, body ply and/or tread layer formulation 564 ₂, body ply and/or tread layer formulation 564 ₃, and body ply and/or tread layer formulation 564 ₄), each of which body ply and/or tread layer exhibits a corresponding spectra profile, are used in the different body ply and/or tread layer that are formed into a tire assembly 566.

FIG. 6 shows a second set of example condition signatures 600 that are emitted from tires formed of layers of carbon-containing tuned resonance materials. The example condition signatures 600 or any aspect thereof may be emitted in any environment. FIG. 9 illustrates multiple body ply and/or tread layer (such as, body ply and/or tread layer #1, body ply and/or tread layer #2, and body ply and/or tread layer #3) of a new tire. The term “ply”, as used in this example and elsewhere with reference to any one or more of the presented implementations, can refer to a ply or layer within a body of the tire, or—alternatively—a layer of the tire tread protruding radially outward away from the body of the tire intended for contact with hard pavement, or the earth for off-road tires). In example, the first body ply and/or tread layer is formulated (referring to being created with a specific formula) with tuned carbons such that the first body ply and/or tread layer resonates at 1.0 GHz when stimulated with a 1.0 GHz ping stimulus (such as, first ping 602). Similarly, the second body ply and/or tread layer is formulated with tuned carbons such that the second body ply and/or tread layer resonates at 2.0 GHz when stimulated with a 2.0 GHz ping stimulus (such as, second ping 604). Further, the third body ply and/or tread layer is formulated with tuned carbons such that the third body ply and/or tread layer resonates at 3.0 GHz when stimulated with a 3.0 GHz ping stimulus (such as, third ping 606). As shown by first response 608, second response 610, and third response 614, all three-body ply and/or tread layer are responsive at their respective tuned frequencies.

A transceiver antenna can be positioned in and/or on the wheel well of the corresponding tire. Systems handling any such generated response signals can be configured to distinguish from other potential responses arising from the other surfaces, such as the remaining non-target tires of the vehicle, for example. For example, even though the right front tire mounted on the right front wheel of the vehicle might respond to a ping that is emitted from a transceiver antenna located in the left front wheel well of the vehicle, the response signal from the right front tire will be significantly attenuated (and recognized as such) as compared to the response signals from the left front tire of the vehicle.

When the transceiver antenna is located in the wheel well of a corresponding tire, the response from the corresponding tire will be attenuated with respect to the ping stimulus. For example, the response from the corresponding tire can be attenuated with respect to the ping stimulus by 9 decibels (−9 dB) or more or can be attenuated with respect to the ping stimulus by 18 decibels (−18 dB) or more or can be attenuated with respect to the ping stimulus by 36 decibels (−36 dB) or more or can be attenuated with respect to the ping stimulus by 72 decibels (−72 dB) or more. In some cases, a ping signal generator is designed to be combined with a transceiver antenna located in the wheel well so as to cause the ping response of a corresponding tire to be attenuated by not more than 75 dB (−75 dB).

FIG. 7 depicts a third set of example condition signatures 700 that are emitted from tires after wear-down of some of the carbon-containing tuned resonance materials. As an option, one or more variations of example condition signatures 700 or any aspect thereof may be implemented in the context of the architecture and functionality of the implementations described herein. The example condition signatures 700 or any aspect thereof may be emitted in any environment.

In this example, the tire has undergone wear. More specifically, the outermost body ply and/or tread layer has been worn away completely. As such, a ping stimulus at 1.0 GHz would not result in a response from the outermost ply. This is shown in the chart as a first response attenuation 702. As the tire continues to undergo tread wear, ping responses from the next body ply and/or tread layer and ping responses from the next successive body ply and/or tread layer and so on will be attenuated, which attenuation can be used to measure total tread wear of the tire. As an alternative, the same tuned carbons can be used in all plies. The tread wear of the tire as well as other indications can be determined based on the returned signal signatures from the tire.

FIG. 8 is a top view of two layers, where each layer hosts a split ring resonator (SRR), e.g., forming an example split-ring resonator (SRR) configuration including two concentric SRRs. As used herein, split ring resonators (SRRs) consist of a pair of concentric rings, disposed on a dielectric substrate, where each ring has slits (e.g., due to a printed pattern). When an array of SRRs is excited by means of a time varying magnetic field, the structure behaves as an effective medium with negative effective permeability in a narrow band around the SRR resonance point. Many geometries are possible, e.g., such that dimensions and/or spacings between each SRR including dimensions “a,” “r”, and/or “c” are selected to achieve particular corresponding spectral response. For example, “a” may be approximately 1 mm, “r” may be 2 mm, and “c” may be approximately 0.6 mm. These dimensions may correspond to producing a desired and/or expected spectral response, e.g., resulting in a relatively wider and/or broader signal response rather than a narrow and/or notched response, facilitating improved spectral analysis leading to improved cost-efficiency in using spectral analysis tools (such as a spectrum analyzer). In addition, or the alternative, any of the dimensions may be further adjusted to achieve particular desired end-result objectives, e.g., applications in racing circuits compared to off-road applications, etc. One particular geometry involves gaps between concentric rings. Such gaps produce a capacitance which in combination with the inductance inherent in the pair of concentric rings introduces a change in the resonance of the ensemble.

A printable, sheet-oriented, cylinder-type, split ring resonator design can be built out of any electrically-conducting materials, including metals, electrically-conducting non-metals, dielectric materials, semiconducting materials, etc. In addition to tuning based on the selection and/or treatment of electrically-conducting materials, split ring resonators can be tuned by varying the geometry such that the effective permittivity accordingly tuned. Effective permittivity as a function of the geometry of a split ring resonator is given in EQ 1.

$\begin{matrix} {\mu_{eff} = {1 - \frac{\frac{\pi\; r^{2}}{a^{2}}}{1 + \frac{2l\;\sigma_{1}^{i}}{\omega\; r\;\mu_{0}} - \frac{3\;{lc}_{0}^{2}}{{\pi\omega}^{2}r^{3}{\ln\left( \frac{2\; c}{d} \right)}}}}} & {{EQ}.\mspace{11mu} 1} \end{matrix}$ where a is the spacing of the cylinders, ω is the angular frequency, μ0 is the permeability of free space, r is the radius, d is the spacing of the concentric conducting sheets, l is a stacking length, c is the thickness of a ring, and σ is the resistance of unit length of the sheets measured around the circumference.

In some situations, the value of a (e.g., the spacing of the cylinders of a cylindrical split ring resonator) can be made relatively small such that the concentric rings absorb EM radiation within a relatively narrow frequency range. In other situations, the value of a can be made relatively large such that the concentric rings each absorb EM radiation at frequencies that are separated by a wide range. In some situations, differently-sized SRRs can be disposed on different surfaces of the tire. In some situations, the differently-sized SRRs that are disposed on different surfaces of the tire can be used to take measurements of tire conditions (e.g., temperature, aging, wear, etc.).

In some embodiments, the materials that form the split ring resonator are composite materials. Each SRR can be configured to any particular desired tuned response to EM stimulation. At least inasmuch as SRRs are designed to mimic the resonance response of atoms (though on a much larger scale, and at lower frequencies), the larger scale of SRRs as compared with atoms allows for more control over the resonance response. Moreover, SRRs are much more responsive than ferromagnetic materials found in nature. The pronounced magnetic response of SRRs carries with it a significant advantage over heavier, naturally occurring materials.

FIG. 9 illustrates a schematic diagram showing a complete tire diagnostics system and apparatus for tire wear sensing through impedance-based spectroscopy. A tire 900, such as a pneumatic rubber tire filled with air or nitrogen gas (N₂), can include traditional tire components including a body 920, an inner liner 912, a bead filler region 922, a bead 916, one or more belt plies 904, 906, 908, and 910, tread 902, and impedance-based spectroscopy wear sensing printed electronics 918 (alternatively sensors including carbon-based microstructures for signal frequency shift and attenuation monitoring by a resonator embedded within any one or more of the belt plies 904-910).

As shown here, a wireless strain sensor can be placed on surfaces or on the sides of the inner liner (or be embedded within) to monitor the tire condition for automobile safety, (such as to detect damaged tires). Tire deformation or strain monitoring can (indirectly) provide information representative of a degree of friction between the tires and contacting road surfaces, which can then be used for the optimization of automobile tire control systems. The tire information can be wirelessly transmitted to a receiver positioned in the tire hub based on a resonant sensor platform.

FIG. 10 illustrates a system 1000 for providing tire wear-related information transferred via telemetry into a navigation system and equipment for manufacturing printed carbon-based materials. The system 1000 can function with any one or more of the presently disclosed systems, methods, and materials, such as the sensors including carbon-based microstructures such that a redundant description of the same is omitted. Impedance spectroscopy, also referred to as Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), refers to a method of impedimetric transduction involving the application of a sinusoidal electrochemical perturbation (potential or current) over a wide range of frequencies when measuring a sample, such as a sensor including carbon-based microstructures incorporated within one or more tire belt plies of a tire 1002. Printed carbon-based resonators 1004 can be incorporated within one or more tire components such as the tire belt plies, with each of the printed carbon-based resonators 1004 having the general oval configuration shown, or some other shape or configuration tailored to achieve specific desirable resonance properties suitable for efficient and accurate vehicle component wear detection through monitoring of frequency shift and/or attenuation (such as a first response attenuation indicative of the wear of a tire body ply and/or tread layer having a natural resonance frequency of approximately 1.0 GHz).

An assembly of rollers 1010 capable of forming the printed carbon-based resonators 1004 includes a repository 1012 (such as a vat) of carbon-based microstructures and/or microstructural material (such as graphene), an anilox roller 1014 (referring to a hard cylinder, usually constructed of a steel or aluminum core which is coated by an industrial ceramic whose surface contains millions of very fine dimples, known as cells), a plate cylinder 1016, and an impression cylinder 1018. In operation, graphene extracted from the repository 1012 can be rolled, pressed, stretched, or otherwise fabricated by the rollers of the assembly of rollers 1010 into the printed carbon-based resonators 1004. No registration (referring to alignment) of the printed carbon-based resonators 1004 may be needed for functioning of the system 1000.

As such, any combination of the aforementioned features can be used to manufacture a tire that has a resonator (referring to actual or “equivalent” tank, LC and/or resonant circuit, where carbon-containing microstructures themselves can resonate in response to emitted RF signals from a transceiver, and/or from energy supplied by an advanced energy source, such that other sensors, disposed into or onto any one or more components such as the tread, a ply or plies, an inner liner, etc. of the tire can demonstrate frequency-shifting or signal attenuation properties or behavior. The described resonator is not necessarily required to be embodied as an actual electrical and/or integrated circuit (IC). The described resonator can be realized simply as tuned carbon-containing microstructures, to thus avoid common deterioration concerns that may arise when implementing traditional discrete circuitry in decomposable materials, such as tire tread layers. Such resonators can resonate in response to an externally-supplied ‘ping’ (such as that supplied by a transceiver located in the wheel well of vehicle), or the resonator can respond to being charged by a co-located (referring to within the same tire tread layer, but possibly at a different location within that tire tread layer), self-powered, self-pinging capability facilitated by any variations or any number of power or charge generators (such as thermoelectric generators, piezoelectric energy generators, triboelectric energy generators, etc.).

At any time when the tire is rolling or otherwise undergoing deformation, any of the described resonators (and other resonators and/or resonant circuits) can be configured to emit and/or further emit oscillating RF signals (or other forms of electromagnetic radiation, depending on the overall configuration). As a vehicle tire experiences wear resultant from usage (such as on or off-road driving), tire tread layers in contact with pavement or ground (earth) may experience deformation, either instantaneously or over time (such as that observed from being “squished”, referring to at least partial flattening of sections of the exposed vehicle tire tread layers during rotation or rolling, and/or from lateral motion as experienced during turning, etc.), therefore resultant signal frequency-shift and/or attenuation behavior may change pursuant to such “squishing” as associated signals can oscillate over one or more known amplitude ranges. In addition, or in the alternative, as the tire undergoes deformation, observed signals can oscillate within a known frequency range corresponding to a particular resonator, allowing for precise and accurate identification of the type of deterioration occurring while it is occurring, rather than requiring the driver, passengers, and/or other vehicle occupants to exist the vehicle, while it is stationary, to observe tire tread conditions. Such a frequency-shifting oscillation is observable as a frequency shift back and forth between two or more frequencies within the known frequency range.

A wireless-capable strain, such as a geometric measure of deformation representing the relative displacement between particles in a material body that is caused by external constraints or loads, sensor positioned on sides of the inner liner can monitor tire condition for automobile safety (such by detecting damaged tires). Additionally, tire deformation or strain monitoring can indirectly provide information related to the degree of friction between tires and road surface, which can then be used for the optimization of automobile tire control systems. Such tire information can be wirelessly transmitted to a receiver (and/or transceiver) positioned in the wheel hub based on a resonant sensor (such as an impedance spectroscopy, IS, sensor) platform.

FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram 1100 a related to a resonant serial number-based digital encoding system for determining wear of vehicle tires through ply-print encoding. The resonant serial number-based digital encoding system may be incorporated and/or function with any of the presently disclosed systems, methods, and sensors. The resonant serial number-based digital encoding system offers digital encoding of tires through ply-print encoding and thus offers cradle-to-the-grave (referring to a full lifespan) of tracking of tires (and related performance metrics) and a usage profile without requiring traditional electronic devices susceptible to routine wear-and-tear in the tires.

Resonant serial number digital encoding of tire through tire tread layer printing may facilitate, in some implementations, cradle-to-grave tire tracking of tires and usage without necessarily requiring the presence of electronics within the tires. For example, along with tire wear sensing accomplished through impedance spectroscopy, additional resonators may be digitally encoded onto, for example, one or more printed patterns for serial numbers used for telemetry tracking. As a result, so-equipped vehicles can track tread wear, miles driven (e.g., in total), and tire age without requiring radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology.

Along with tire wear sensing thru Impedance Spectroscopy (IS) and/or Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), additional resonators can be digitally encoded onto a printed pattern to provide a recognizable serial number for telemetry-based tire performance tracking. By being printed onto the body ply and/or tread layer incrementally, tires incorporating the discussed printed carbon-based resonators can be innately serialized.

FIG. 12 shows schematic diagram 1200 for resonant serial number encoding in tires. The serial number “6E” is shown encoded in a specially-prepared array of printed carbon resonators configured to resonate according to the ‘ping’ stimulus-response diagram 1212 allowing for convenient and reliable identification of that particular body ply and/or tread layer of the so-equipped vehicle tire.

FIG. 13 is presented to illustrate use of split ring resonators (SRRs) as resonance devices that contribute to the ensemble phenomenon arising from different proximally-present resonator types. The figure shows the inner surface 1301 of a tire, where the inner surface has two split ring resonators (e.g., split ring resonator 1303A and split ring resonator 1303B), each of which split ring resonator forms a circuit configuration 1902 that can be tuned to attenuate a signal at a particular frequency and/or to attenuate within a particular range of frequencies. In this embodiment, circuit configuration 1902 is shown as a geometric pattern that corresponds to a substantially-circular split ring resonator; however, alternative circuit configurations can have different geometric patterns (e.g., cylinders, ellipses, rectangles, ovals, squares, etc.), and as such, any conceivable geometric configuration is possible. Variations of the geometric configurations can be selected based on the impact on resonation capabilities of the geometric pattern. In particular, and as shown, the geometric pattern can comprise self-assembled carbon-based particles having various agglomeration patterns (e.g., agglomeration pattern 1306, agglomeration pattern 1308, and agglomeration pattern 1310), any one or more of which can constitute a concentrated region 1304 that can impact the resonation performance of materials within which carbon-based microstructures are incorporated. An agglomeration pattern and/or a series of agglomeration patterns may also impact the resonation performance of materials within which carbon-based microstructures are incorporated.

In various configurations the carbon-based microstructures are formed, at least in part by graphene. In this context, graphene refers to an allotrope of carbon in the form of a single layer of atoms in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. Co-location and/or juxtaposition of multiple of such hexagonal lattices into more complex structures introduces further resonance effects. For example, juxtaposition 1302 of two sheets or platelets of graphene may resonate between themselves at a frequency that is dependent on the length, width, spacing, thickness, shape of the spacing, and/or other physical characteristics of the sheets or platelets and/or their relative juxtaposition to each other.

Table 1 depicts one possible chord of attenuations arising from the ensemble effect. As shown in the table, each of the structures has a different resonant frequency domain that corresponds to its scale designation.

TABLE 1 Ensemble effect examples Resonant Frequency Structure Scale Designation Domain Printed Pattern (e.g., split Macro-scale Lower GHz ring resonator geometry) Agglomeration pattern Meso-scale Higher GHz Juxtaposition of graphene Micro-scale Very high GHz sheets or platelets Molecule Nano-scale THz

Any number of different split ring resonators can be printed onto a surface of a tire. Moreover, any number of different sizes of split ring resonators can be printed onto any of the surfaces of a tire. The choice of materials and/or the size and/or other structural or dimensional characteristics of a particular split ring resonator can be used to control the resonation frequency of that particular resonator split ring. A series of differently-sized split ring resonators can be printed such that the pattern corresponds to a digitally encoded value. Stimulating the series of differently-sized split ring resonators with via electromagnetic signal communication, for example, sweeping through a range from 8 GHz to 9 GHz or similar, and measuring the attenuation response through a range of the return leads to a recognizable encoded serial number. Many different encoding schemes are possible, and as such, the non-limiting example of Table 2 is merely for illustration.

TABLE 2 Example encoding scheme Size (outer diameter) 1 mm 2 mm 2.5 mm 3 mm 4 mm 5 mm 6 mm 7 mm Bit Assignment 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Calibrated 8.890    8.690    8.655 8.570    8.470    8.380    8.350 8.275 Attenuation Point (GHz) Encoded 6E Present Present Present Present Present SRR pattern Encoded 6E 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 bit pattern Encoded 4E Present Present Present Present SRR pattern Encoded 4E 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 bit pattern Encoded E1 Present Present Present Present SRR pattern Encoded E1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 bit pattern

FIG. 14 shows a schematic diagram of a tire sensor 1400, according to some implementations. In one implementation, the tire sensor 1400 may include a section 1402 of a tire body (e.g., as shown in FIG. 9 ) with multiple tire plies. The tire sensor 1400 may detect a temperature of a tire ply 1408, e.g., in which the tire sensor 1400 is incorporated. In one implementation, the tire sensor may include a ceramic material 1404 (e.g., organized as a matrix), and one or more SRRs 1406, such as shown in FIG. 8 and elsewhere in the present disclosure). Each of the one or more SRRs 1406 may have a natural resonance frequency (e.g., as shown in FIG. 16 ) that may shift in response to one or more of a change in an elastomeric property or a change in the temperature of the respective tire. An electrically-conductive layer 1410 may be dielectrically separated from a respective SRR of the one or more SRRs 1406. In some implementations, the tire sensor 1400 may be produced and shipped without being incorporated in a tire, such that later incorporation within a tire and/or tire ply is possible.

In addition, or the alternative, the tire sensor 1400 may be incorporated into a system (not shown in FIG. 14 ) configured to detect tire strain (e.g., as shown in FIG. 16 ) in a vehicle. The system may include an antennae (e.g., as discussed in the present disclosure relating to emission and/or propagation of electromagnetic signals) disposed on one or more of the vehicle or a vehicle component. The antennae and configured to output an electromagnetic ping. The system may also include a tire including a body (e.g., as shown in FIG. 9 ) formed of one or more tire plies. Any one or more of the tire plies may include split-ring resonators (SRRs), e.g., as discussed in the present disclosure. In one implementation, each SRR has a natural resonance frequency configured to proportionately shift (e.g., as shown in FIG. 16 ) in response to a change in an elastomeric property of a respective one or more tire plies, e.g., reversible deformation, stress, and/or strain.

In some implementations, the described system may function to detect changes in physical properties of materials outside of configurations relating to tires and/or vehicles, e.g., automobiles and trucks. For example, the system may detect changes in surface temperature of an airplane wing and/or other type of airfoil, e.g., associated with spacecraft and/or the like. Also, the system may permit for instances where the one or more SRRs 1406 may be removably adhered onto patients in a hospital setting, such that body temperature readings of the respective patient may be obtained without the usage of conventional thermal sensors (e.g., relying on radiative heat transfer technology, etc.). In any of these examples, as well as others, such a system may detect a physical property associated with a surface.

In one implementation, the system may include a single antennae configured to output an electromagnetic ping and one or more flexible substrates. Each of the flexible substrates may include a first side including a plurality of split-ring resonators (SRRs) (e.g., such as the one or more SRRs 1406) disposed on the flexible substrate. Each SRR may have a natural resonance frequency that may proportionately shift (e.g., as shown in FIG. 16 ) in response to a change in an elastomeric property of a respective one or more tire plies. The elastomeric property may include one or more of a reversible deformation, stress, strain, or temperature. In this way, the system may generate an absorption profile (e.g., referring to unique changes in absorption phenomena of the electromagnetic ping output by the antennae). The system may include a second side positioned opposite to the first side. The second side may attach to the surface. The single antenna may analyze data associated with the absorption profile and output a topography of the physical property.

FIG. 15 depicts a graph 1500 of measured resonant signature signal intensity (in decibels, dB) against height (in millimeters, mm) of tire tread layer loss, according to some implementations. As shown here, carbon-containing microstructures and/or microstructural materials can be incorporated into sensors or, in some configurations, entire layers of one or more tire treads at a given concentration level, or multiple dissimilar concentration levels (in each of the one or more tire tread layers) to achieve the unique deterioration profile shown. That is, the measure resonance signature (referring to the identifying “signature” of a particular tire tread layer in question) can be ‘pinged’, as so described herein, by one or more RF signals to demonstrate the attenuation of that emitted signal as shown.

A new tire tread layer can be configured to indicate a signal intensity (measured in decibels, dB) of approximately 0. That intensity can change proportionate to the extent of deterioration of that tire tread layer. For instance, a 2 mm height loss of a tire tread layer, presumedly the tire tread layer in contact with pavement, can correspond with the measure resonant signature signal intensity profile shown. A ‘ping’ signal at 6.7 GHz can be measured at an intensity level of about 9 dB, or so, and so and so forth.

Accordingly, unique concentration levels, chemistries, dispersions, distributions and/or the like of the carbon-containing microstructures can be embedded (or, in some cases, placed on one or more surfaces of) tire tread layers to achieve a unique and readily identifiable measured resonant signature signal intensity as shown. A user of such a system can therefore immediately be notified to the exact extent and location of tire tread wear as it occurs during driving, rather than being restricted to observe the tires while the vehicle is in a stationary condition, a process that can be both time-consuming and cumbersome.

FIG. 16 depicts a graph 1600 of measured resonant signature signal intensity (in decibels, dB) against the natural resonance frequency of split-ring resonator(s) (SRRs) incorporated into tire treads and/or tire plies (e.g., as discussed in the present disclosure), according to some implementations. As shown here, carbon-containing and/or carbonaceous microstructures and/or microstructural materials can be incorporated into sensors or, in some configurations, entire layers of one or more tire treads at a given concentration level, or multiple dissimilar concentration levels (in each of the one or more tire tread layers) to achieve the unique deterioration profile shown. That is, the measure resonance signature (referring to the identifying “signature” of a particular tire tread layer in question) can be ‘pinged’, as so described herein, by one or more RF signals to demonstrate the shift of that emitted signal as shown, e.g., representative and/or proportionate to an extent of reversible tire deformation, e.g., stress and/or strain (as may be encountered in drifting scenarios). In this way, SRR “response” signal behavior can be modeled as a function of tire deformation, e.g., strain (associated with drifting), allowing for a complete picture of tire condition and performance when considered with the graph of FIG. 13 (which may be indicative of tire wear encountered in routine forward rolling operations, etc.). Real-world scenarios resulting in lateral tire stiction loss may include drifting and/or hydroplaning, e.g., implying phenomena that occurs when a layer of water builds between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to a loss of traction that prevents the vehicle from responding to control inputs. If hydroplaning occurs to all contact wheels simultaneously, the vehicle becomes, in effect, an uncontrolled sled. Usage of the presently disclosed SRRs and/or resonators in combination with antennae and/or signal processing equipment may effectively eliminate the need to rely on conventional hydroplaning detection techniques, e.g., through usage of a vibration detection unit coupled with surfaces of a tire which may deteriorate and become compromised through extended usage. In addition, FIG. 16 shows spectral response (in signal decibels) associated with lateral tire movement encountered during striction loss while drifting. In real-world scenarios, such as temporary stiction loss may be audibly heard through a high-pitched “screech,” as opposed to other sounds heard during rapid forward rotation only. This type of periodic stiction loss (prior to the drifting vehicle regaining stiction and/or traction) may be exhibited (not shown in FIG. 16 ) as a periodic and/or cyclical shift in the natural resonance frequency of corresponding SRRs. Referring back to FIG. 16 , “screech” type circumstances may be visually depicted by minor periodic and/or cyclical shifts in frequency of the various troughs and/or peaks of the curves.

As can be seen the real-time multi-modality resonator supports methods for measuring stiction using resonant materials-containing sensors for elastomer property change detection. In one setting, one or more resonant materials-containing sensors for elastomer property change detection are disposed in a location proximal to a transducer. A stimulation signal is emitted so as to excite the one or more resonant materials-containing sensors for elastomer property change detection. The emissions comprise electromagnetic energy that spans a known frequency range. A calibration signal is captured under a known stiction condition. After receiving return signals that comprise, at least in part, frequencies that are responsive to the stimulation signal, various signal processing techniques are applied to the return signal. For example, various signal processing techniques are applied to the return signal to compare with respect to the stimulation signal. Wherever frequencies and/or amplitude of the return signal differs from the calibration signal, a corresponding interfacial indirect permittivity (e.g., at the interface between a tire and the driving surface) is calculated. Absolute and/or relative values of the interfacial indirect permittivity are correlated to a stictional value (e.g., using a calibration table). Changes in the stictional value over time are in turn correlated to road and/or tire conditions.

The static and/or dynamic values that make up the aforementioned calibration signal and/or calibration table can be based at least in part on analysis of the stimulation signal, and/or analysis of an environment proximal to the transducer. Moreover, the aforementioned calibration signal and/or calibration table can encompass permittivity calibration signals, permeability calibration signals, temperature calibration signals, vibration calibration signals, doping calibration signals, etc. In one implementation, calibration procedures may be performed under known and/or controlled environmental conditions, e.g., dry pavement and in clear weather, to generate baseline data at various forward-facing angular velocities (such that the test vehicle is only moving directly forward with no lateral skidding and/or sliding movement). This baseline data then serves as one or more calibration curves from which deformation values may be subsequently compared and/or calculated. In this way, clear performance changes may be observed relative to the initial unstretched (baseline) calibration curve, e.g., as shown in FIG. 16 .

Whenever and wherever the return signal differs from the calibration signal further analysis of the return signal with respect to the stimulation signal can serve to identify which of the frequencies of the return signal are different than the calibration signal. The differences can be observed/measured as an attenuation of a frequency or frequencies with respect to the calibration signal. Additionally, or alternatively, the differences can be observed/measured as a frequency shift (as shown in FIG. 16 relative to data corresponding stretched at 0.5%, etc.) of peaks with respect to peaks of the calibration signal.

FIG. 17 shows use of split ring resonant structures that are configured to resonate in a manner that corresponds to an encoded serial number. Such a pattern of split ring resonant structures can be printed on tires or other elastomers. As shown, the encoded serial number “E1” is shown by the presence of split ring resonators of four different sizes. The stimulus-response diagram 1700 shows EM stimulus in a range of about 8 GHz to about 9 GHz, whereas the response is shown as attenuation in a range from about −8 dB to about −18 dB. Stimulating the series of different sized split ring resonators with via electromagnetic signal communication across the range and measuring the S-parameters of the return across the range, leads to convenient and reliable identification of that particular printed pattern. It follows then that, if a unique pattern is printed onto each one of a run of tires, and if the pattern is associated with an encoded serial number, then a determination of the specific tire can be made based on the pattern's response to the EM interrogation.

More specifically, if a unique pattern is printed onto each one of a run of tires, and if the pattern is associated with an encoded serial number, then a determination of the specific tire can be made based on measured S-parameters (e.g., S-parameter ratios that correspond to attenuation) in response to EM interrogation over an EM stimulus in a range corresponding to the encoding scheme. In the example of FIG. 17 , the attenuations fall in a range from about −8 dB to about −18 dB however, in other measurements the attenuations fall in a range of about −1 dB to about −9 dB. In other measurements the attenuations fall in a range of about −10 dB to about −19 dB. In other measurements the attenuations fall in a range of about −20 dB to about −35 dB. In empirical experimentation, the attenuations are substantially independent of the number of differently-configured resonators that are proximally collocated on a tire surface. More particularly, in some experimentation, the attenuations are particularly pronounced when the resonators are proximally collocated on a tire surface that is on the tread-side of a steel belt (e.g., in a steel belted radial tire).

The foregoing encoding and printing techniques can be used in tires and other elastomer-containing components. In some cases, printing the resonators is carried out at relatively high temperatures and/or with chemical agents (e.g., catalysts) such that chemical bonds are formed between the carbon atoms of the resonators and the elastomers. The chemical bonds that are formed between the carbon atoms of the resonators and the elastomers contribute to ensemble effect, and as such, calibration curves may be taken to account for the type and extent of the aforementioned chemical bonds.

The elastomer can contain any one or more types of rubber. Isoprene for example is a common rubber formulation. Isoprene has its own single C—C bonds and double bonds between the other molecular elements in the ligands. Additional double carbon bonds formed by the high-temperature printing of the split ring resonators has the effect of increased conductivity, which effect can be exploited to form larger, lower frequency resonators. Additionally, or alternatively, agglomerations can be tuned into specific sizes, which would give rise to overtones that contribute to the ensemble effect, which in turn results in very high sensitivity given EM interrogation in a tuned range. In some cases, the response of the materials to EM interrogation is sufficiently discernable such that the age or other aspect of the elastomer's health can be determined (e.g., by comparison to one or more calibration curves).

More specifically, as elastomers age, the molecular spacing changes and coupling and/or percolation of energy decreases correspondingly, thus shifting the response frequencies as the conductive localities become more and more isolated with respect to adjacent localities. In some cases, attenuation and/or return signal strength will change at specific frequencies. Such changes can be determined over time, and the changes can be used to construct calibration curves.

The design of tires supports many possible locations for printing of the split ring resonators. As examples, split ring resonators can be located on any inner surface of a tire, including but not limited to the cap ply, and/or on or near the steel belts (e.g., on the tread side of a steel belt), and/or on or near a radial ply, and/or on the sidewall, and/or on the bead chafers, and/or on the beads, etc.

Use of the split ring resonator techniques are not limited to only tires. The techniques can be applied to any elastomer-containing components such belts and hoses. Moreover, the use of the split ring resonator techniques are not limited to only vehicles. That is, since consumables exist in organic powertrain and/or drive train components in a wide range of motive devices (e.g., in industrial mechanical systems), the split ring resonator techniques can be applied to those consumables as well. Some aspects of wear phenomena are a consequence of friction, heat, heat cycling and corrosion, any of which can result in and/or accelerate changes in the molecular structure of the materials. Changes in the molecular structure of the materials is detectable under EM interrogation. More specifically, by calculating a frequency shift, a particular sample's response (e.g., an aged sample's response) under a particular EM interrogation regime with respect to a calibration curve, the age or health of the material can be assessed based on the magnitude of the frequency shift.

FIG. 18A through FIG. 18Y depict carbon-based materials, growths, agglomerates, aggregates, sheets, particles and/or the like, such as those self-nucleated in-flight in a reaction chamber or reactor from a carbon-containing gaseous species such as methane (CH₄), as disclosed by Stowell, et al., in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/785,020 entitled “3D Self-Assembled Multi-Modal Carbon-Based Particle” filed on Feb. 7, 2020.

The shown carbon-based nanoparticles and aggregates can be characterized by a high degree of “uniformity” (such as a high mass fraction of desired carbon allotropes), a high degree of “order” (such as a low concentration of defects), and/or a high degree of “purity” (such as a low concentration of elemental impurities), in contrast to the lower uniformity, less ordered, and lower purity particles achievable with conventional systems and methods.

The nanoparticles produced using the methods described herein can contain multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs and have a high uniformity (such as, a ratio of graphene to MWSF from 20% to 80%), a high degree of order (such as, a Raman signature with an I_(D)/I_(G) ratio from 0.95 to 1.05), and a high degree of purity (such as, the ratio of carbon to other elements (other than hydrogen) is greater than 99.9%). The nanoparticles produced using the methods described herein contain MWSFs or connected MWSFs, and the MWSFs do not contain a core composed of impurity elements other than carbon. The particles produced using the methods described herein can be aggregates containing the nanoparticles described above with large diameters (such as greater than 10 μm).

Conventional methods have been used to produce particles containing multi-walled spherical fullerenes with a high degree of order but can lead to end products with a variety of shortcomings. For example, high temperature synthesis techniques lead to particles with a mixture of many carbon allotropes and therefore low uniformity (such as less than 20% fullerenes relative to other carbon allotropes) and/or small particle sizes (such as less than 1 μm, or less than 100 nm in some cases). Methods using catalysts can lead to products that include the catalyst elements and therefore have relatively lower purity (referring to less than 95% carbon to other elements) as well. These undesirable properties also often lead to undesirable electrical properties of the resulting carbon particles (such as, electrical conductivity of less than 1,000 S/m).

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can be characterized by Raman spectroscopy that is indicative of the high degree of order and uniformity of structure. The uniform ordered and/or pure carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can be produced using relatively high speed, low cost improved thermal reactors and methods, as described below.

The term “graphene”, as both commonly understood and as referred to herein, implies an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional, atomic-scale, hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. The carbon atoms in graphene are sp²-bonded. Additionally, graphene has a Raman spectrum with two main peaks: a G-mode at approximately 1580 cm⁻¹ and a D-mode at approximately 1350 cm⁻¹ (when using a 532 nm excitation laser).

The term “fullerene”, as both commonly understood and as referred to herein, implies a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or other shapes. Spherical fullerenes can also be referred to as Buckminsterfullerenes, or buckyballs. Cylindrical fullerenes can also be referred to as carbon nanotubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings. Fullerenes may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

The term “multi-walled fullerene”, as both commonly understood and as referred to herein, implies fullerenes with multiple concentric layers. For example, multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) contain multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of graphene. Multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) contain multiple concentric spheres of fullerenes.

The term “nanoparticle”, as both commonly understood and as referred to herein, implies a particle that measures from 1 nm to 989 nm. The nanoparticle can include one or more structural characteristics (such as, crystal structure, defect concentration, etc.), and one or more types of atoms. The nanoparticle can be any shape, including but not limited to spherical shapes, spheroidal shapes, dumbbell shapes, cylindrical shapes, elongated cylindrical type shapes, rectangular and/or prism shapes, disk shapes, wire shapes, irregular shapes, dense shapes (such as, with few voids), porous shapes (such as, with many voids), etc.

The term “aggregate”, as both commonly understood and as referred to herein, implies a plurality of nanoparticles that are connected together by Van der Waals forces, by covalent bonds, by ionic bonds, by metallic bonds, or by other physical or chemical interactions. Aggregates can vary in size considerably, but in general are larger than about 500 nm.

A carbon nanoparticle can include two (2) or more connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs and can be formed to be independent of a core composed of impurity elements other than carbon. A carbon nanoparticle, as described herein, can include two (2) or more connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs. In such a configuration, where the MWSFs do not contain a void (referring to a space with no carbon atoms greater than approximately 0.5 nm or greater than approximately 1 nm) at the center. The connected MWSFs can be formed of concentric, well-ordered spheres of sp²—hybridized carbon atoms (which is in favorable contrast to conventional spheres of haphazardly-ordered, non-uniform, amorphous carbon particles, which can otherwise fail to achieve any one or more of the unexpected and favorable properties disclosed herein).

The nanoparticles containing the connected MWSFs have an average diameter in a range from 5 to 500 nm, or from 5 to 250 nm, or from 5 to 100 nm, or from 5 to 50 nm, or from 10 to 500 nm, or from 10 to 250 nm, or from 10 to 100 nm, or from 10 to 50 nm, or from 40 to 500 nm, or from 40 to 250 nm, or from 40 to 100 nm, or from 50 to 500 nm, or from 50 to 250 nm, or from 50 to 100 nm.

The carbon nanoparticles described herein form aggregates, wherein many nanoparticles aggregate together to form a larger unit. A carbon aggregate can a plurality of carbon nanoparticles. A diameter across the carbon aggregate can be a range from 10 to 500 μm, or from 50 to 500 μm, or from 100 to 500 μm, or from 250 to 500 μm, or from 10 to 250 μm, or from 10 to 100 μm, or from 10 to 50 μm. The aggregate can be formed from a plurality of carbon nanoparticles, as defined above. Aggregates can contain connected MWSFs, such as those with a high uniformity metric (such as a ratio of graphene to MWSF from 20% to 80%), a high degree of order (such as a Raman signature with an I_(D)/I_(G) ratio from 0.95 to 1.05), and a high degree of purity (such as greater than 99.9% carbon).

Aggregates of carbon nanoparticles, referring primarily to those with diameters in the ranges described above, especially particles greater than 10 μm, are generally easier to collect than particles or aggregates of particles that are smaller than 500 nm. The ease of collection reduces the cost of manufacturing equipment used in the production of the carbon nanoparticles and increases the yield of the carbon nanoparticles. Particles greater than 10 μm in size also pose fewer safety concerns compared to the risks of handling smaller nanoparticles, such as, potential health and safety risks due to inhalation of the smaller nanoparticles. The lower health and safety risks, thus, further reduce the manufacturing cost.

A carbon nanoparticle, in reference to that disclosed herein, can have a ratio of graphene to MWSFs from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. A carbon aggregate has a ratio of graphene to MWSFs is from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. A carbon nanoparticle has a ratio of graphene to connected MWSFs from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%. A carbon aggregate has a ratio of graphene to connected MWSFs is from 10% to 90%, or from 10% to 80%, or from 10% to 60%, or from 10% to 40%, or from 10% to 20%, or from 20% to 40%, or from 20% to 90%, or from 40% to 90%, or from 60% to 90%, or from 80% to 90%.

Raman spectroscopy can be used to characterize carbon allotropes to distinguish their molecular structures. For example, graphene can be characterized using Raman spectroscopy to determine information such as order/disorder, edge and grain boundaries, thickness, number of layers, doping, strain, and thermal conductivity. MWSFs have also been characterized using Raman spectroscopy to determine the degree of order of the MWSFs.

Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize the structure of MWSFs or connected MWSFs used in reference to that incorporated within the various tire-related plies of tires as discussed herein. The main peaks in the Raman spectra are the G-mode and the D-mode. The G-mode is attributed to the vibration of carbon atoms in sp²-hybridized carbon networks, and the D-mode is related to the breathing of hexagonal carbon rings with defects. In some circumstances, defects may be present, yet may not be detectable in the Raman spectra. For example, if the presented crystalline structure is orthogonal with respect to the basal plane, the D-peak will show an increase. Alternatively, if presented with a perfectly planar surface that is parallel with respect to the basal plane, the D-peak will be zero.

When using 532 nm incident light, the Raman G-mode is typically at 1582 cm⁻¹ for planar graphite, however, can be downshifted for MWSFs or connected MWSFs (such as, down to 1565 cm⁻¹ or down to 1580 cm⁻¹). The D-mode is observed at approximately 1350 cm⁻¹ in the Raman spectra of MWSFs or connected MWSFs. The ratio of the intensities of the D-mode peak to G-mode peak (such as, the I_(D)/I_(G)) is related to the degree of order of the MWSFs, where a lower I_(D)/I_(G) indicates a higher degree of order. An I_(D)/I_(G) near or below 1 indicates a relatively high degree of order, and an I_(D)/I_(G) greater than 1.1 indicates a lower degree of order.

A carbon nanoparticle or a carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as described herein, can have and/or demonstrate a Raman spectrum with a first Raman peak at about 1350 cm⁻¹ and a second Raman peak at about 1580 cm⁻¹ when using 532 nm incident light. The ratio of an intensity of the first Raman peak to an intensity of the second Raman peak (such as, the I_(D)/I_(G)) for the nanoparticles or the aggregates described herein can be in a range from 0.95 to 1.05, or from 0.9 to 1.1, or from 0.8 to 1.2, or from 0.9 to 1.2, or from 0.8 to 1.1, or from 0.5 to 1.5, or less than 1.5, or less than 1.2, or less than 1.1, or less than 1, or less than 0.95, or less than 0.9, or less than 0.8.

A carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, has a high purity. The carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs has a ratio of carbon to metals of greater than 99.99%, or greater than 99.95%, or greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.8%, or greater than 99.5%, or greater than 99%. The carbon aggregate has a ratio of carbon to other elements of greater than 99.99%, or greater than 99.95%, or greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.5%, or greater than 99%, or greater than 90%, or greater than 80%, or greater than 70%, or greater than 60%. The carbon aggregate has a ratio of carbon to other elements (except for hydrogen) of greater than 99.99%, or greater than 99.95%, or greater than 99.9%, or greater than 99.8%, or greater than 99.5%, or greater than 99%, or greater than 90%, or greater than 80%, or greater than 70%, or greater than 60%.

A carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, has a high specific surface area. The carbon aggregate has a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area from 10 to 200 m²/g, or from 10 to 100 m²/g, or from 10 to 50 m²/g, or from 50 to 200 m²/g, or from 50 to 100 m²/g, or from 10 to 1000 m²/g.

A carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, has a high electrical conductivity. A carbon aggregate containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs, as defined above, is compressed into a pellet and the pellet has an electrical conductivity greater than 500 S/m, or greater than 1,000 S/m, or greater than 2,000 S/m, or greater than 3,000 S/m, or greater than 4,000 S/m, or greater than 5,000 S/m, or greater than 10,000 S/m, or greater than 20,000 S/m, or greater than 30,000 S/m, or greater than 40,000 S/m, or greater than 50,000 S/m, or greater than 60,000 S/m, or greater than 70,000 S/m, or from 500 S/m to 100,000 S/m, or from 500 S/m to 1,000 S/m, or from 500 S/m to 10,000 S/m, or from 500 S/m to 20,000 S/m, or from 500 S/m to 100,000 S/m, or from 1000 S/m to 10,000 S/m, or from 1,000 S/m to 20,000 S/m, or from 10,000 to 100,000 S/m, or from 10,000 S/m to 80,000 S/m, or from 500 S/m to 10,000 S/m. In some cases, the density of the pellet is approximately 1 g/cm³, or approximately 1.2 g/cm³, or approximately 1.5 g/cm³, or approximately 2 g/cm³, or approximately 2.2 g/cm³, or approximately 2.5 g/cm³, or approximately 3 g/cm³. Additionally, tests have been performed in which compressed pellets of the carbon aggregate materials have been formed with compressions of 2,000 psi and 12,000 psi and with annealing temperatures of 800° C. and 1,000° C. The higher compression and/or the higher annealing temperatures generally result in pellets with a higher degree of electrical conductivity, including in the range of 12,410.0 S/m to 13,173.3 S/m.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can be produced using thermal reactors and methods. Further details pertaining to thermal reactors and/or methods of use can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 9,862,602, issued Jan. 9, 2018, entitled “CRACKING OF A PROCESS GAS”, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Additionally, carbon-containing and/or hydrocarbon precursors (referring to at least methane, ethane, propane, butane, and natural gas) can be used with the thermal reactors to produce the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using the thermal reactors with gas flow rates from 1 slm to 10 slm, or from 0.1 slm to 20 slm, or from 1 slm to 5 slm, or from 5 slm to 10 slm, or greater than 1 slm, or greater than 5 slm. The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced using the thermal reactors with gas resonance times from 0.1 seconds (s) to 30 s, or from 0.1 s to 10 s, or from 1 s to 10 s, or from 1 s to 5 s, from 5 s to 10 s, or greater than 0.1 seconds, or greater than 1 s, or greater than 5 s, or less than 30 s.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can be produced using the thermal reactors with production rates from 10 g/hr to 200 g/hr, or from 30 g/hr to 200 g/hr, or from 30 g/hr to 100 g/hr, or from 30 g/hr to 60 g/hr, or from 10 g/hr to 100 g/hr, or greater than 10 g/hr, or greater than 30 g/hr, or greater than 100 g/hr.

Thermal reactors (or other cracking apparatuses) and thermal reactor methods (or other cracking methods) can be used for refining, pyrolizing, dissociating or cracking feedstock process gases into its constituents to produce the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein, as well as other solid and/or gaseous products (such as, hydrogen gas and/or lower order hydrocarbon gases). The feedstock process gases generally include, for example, hydrogen gas (H²), carbon dioxide (CO²), C¹ to C¹⁰ hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and/or other hydrocarbon gases such as natural gas, methane, ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, saturated/unsaturated hydrocarbon gases, ethene, propene, etc., and mixtures thereof. The carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates can include, for example, multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs), connected MWSFs, carbon nanospheres, graphene, graphite, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite, single-walled nanotubes, multi-walled nanotubes, other solid carbon products, and/or the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein.

Methods for producing the carbon nanoparticles and the carbon aggregates described herein can include thermal cracking methods that use, for example, an elongated longitudinal heating element optionally enclosed within an elongated casing, housing, or body of a thermal cracking apparatus. The body can include, for example, one or more tubes or other appropriate enclosures made of stainless steel, titanium, graphite, quartz, or the like. The body of the thermal cracking apparatus is generally cylindrical in shape with a central elongate longitudinal axis arranged vertically and a feedstock process gas inlet at or near a top of the body. The feedstock process gas can flow longitudinally down through the body or a portion thereof. In the vertical configuration, both gas flow and gravity assist in the removal of the solid products from the body of the thermal cracking apparatus.

The heating element can include any one or more of a heating lamp, one or more resistive wires or filaments (or twisted wires), metal filaments, metallic strips, or rods, and/or other appropriate thermal radical generators or elements that can be heated to a specific temperature (such a, a molecular cracking temperature) sufficient to thermally crack molecules of the feedstock process gas. The heating element can be disposed, located, or arranged to extend centrally within the body of the thermal cracking apparatus along the central longitudinal axis thereof. In configurations having only one heating element can include it placed at or concentric with the central longitudinal axis; alternatively, for configurations having multiple heating elements can include them spaced or offset generally symmetrically or concentrically at locations near and around and parallel to the central longitudinal axis.

Thermal cracking to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can be achieved by flowing the feedstock process gas over, or in contact with, or within the vicinity of, the heating element within a longitudinal elongated reaction zone generated by heat from the heating element and defined by and contained inside the body of the thermal cracking apparatus to heat the feedstock process gas to or at a specific molecular cracking temperature.

The reaction zone can be considered to be the region surrounding the heating element and close enough to the heating element for the feedstock process gas to receive sufficient heat to thermally crack the molecules thereof. The reaction zone is thus generally axially aligned or concentric with the central longitudinal axis of the body. The thermal cracking is performed under a specific pressure. The feedstock process gas is circulated around or across the outside surface of a container of the reaction zone or a heating chamber to cool the container or chamber and preheat the feedstock process gas before flowing the feedstock process gas into the reaction zone.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein and/or hydrogen gas are produced without the use of catalysts. Accordingly, the process can be entirely catalyst free.

Disclosed methods and systems can advantageously be rapidly scaled up or scaled down for different production levels as may be desired, such as being scalable to provide a standalone hydrogen and/or carbon nanoparticle producing station, a hydrocarbon source, or a fuel cell station, to provide higher capacity systems, such as, for a refinery and/or the like.

A thermal cracking apparatus for cracking a feedstock process gas to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein include a body, a feedstock process gas inlet, and an elongated heating element. The body has an inner volume with a longitudinal axis. The inner volume has a reaction zone concentric with the longitudinal axis. A feedstock process gas can be flowed into the inner volume through the feedstock process gas inlet during thermal cracking operations. The elongated heating element can be disposed within the inner volume along the longitudinal axis and is surrounded by the reaction zone. During the thermal cracking operations, the elongated heating element is heated by electrical power to a molecular cracking temperature to generate the reaction zone, the feedstock process gas is heated by heat from the elongated heating element, and the heat thermally cracks molecules of the feedstock process gas that are within the reaction zone into constituents of the molecules.

A method for cracking a feedstock process gas to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can include at least any one or more of the following: (1) providing a thermal cracking apparatus having an inner volume that has a longitudinal axis and an elongated heating element disposed within the inner volume along the longitudinal axis; (2) heating the elongated heating element by electrical power to a molecular cracking temperature to generate a longitudinal elongated reaction zone within the inner volume; (3) flowing a feedstock process gas into the inner volume and through the longitudinal elongated reaction zone (such as, wherein the feedstock process gas is heated by heat from the elongated heating element); and (4) thermally cracking molecules of the feedstock process gas within the longitudinal elongated reaction zone into constituents thereof (such as, hydrogen gas and one or more solid products) as the feedstock process gas flows through the longitudinal elongated reaction zone.

The feedstock process gas used to produce the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein can include a hydrocarbon gas. The results of cracking can, in turn, further include hydrogen in gaseous form (such as, H²) and various forms of the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein. The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates include two or more MWSFs and layers of graphene coating the MWSFs, and/or connected MWSFs and layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs. The feedstock process gas is preheated (such as, to 100° C. to 500° C.) by flowing the feedstock process gas through a gas preheating region between a heating chamber and a shell of the thermal cracking apparatus before flowing the feedstock process gas into the inner volume. A gas having nanoparticles therein is flowed into the inner volume and through the longitudinal elongated reaction zone to mix with the feedstock process gas, to form a coating of a solid product (such as, layers of graphene) around the nanoparticles.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs described herein can be produced and collected without requiring the completion of any post-processing treatments or operations. Alternatively, some post-processing can be performed on one or more of the presently disclosed MWSFs. Some examples of post-processing involved in making and using resonant materials include mechanical processing such as ball milling, grinding, attrition milling, micro fluidizing, and other techniques to reduce the particle size without damaging the MWSFs. Some further examples of post-processing include exfoliation processes (referring to the complete separation of layers of carbon-containing material, such as the creation or extraction of layers of graphene from graphite, etc.) including sheer mixing, chemical etching, oxidizing (such as the Hummer method), thermal annealing, doping by adding elements during annealing (such as sulfur and/or nitrogen), steaming, filtering, and lyophilization, among others. Some examples of post-processing include sintering processes such as spark plasma sintering (SPS), direct current sintering, microwave sintering, and ultraviolet (UV) sintering, which can be conducted at high pressure and temperature in an inert gas. Multiple post-processing methods can be used together or in a series. The post-processing produces functionalized carbon nanoparticles or aggregates containing multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) or connected MWSFs.

Materials can be mixed together in different combinations, quantities and/or ratios. Different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs described herein can be mixed together prior to one or more post-processing operations, if any at all. For example, different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs with different properties (such as, different sizes, different compositions, different purities, from different processing runs, etc.) can be mixed together. The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs described herein can be mixed with graphene to change the ratio of the connected MWSFs to graphene in the mixture. Different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs described herein can be mixed together after post-processing. Different carbon nanoparticles and aggregates containing MWSFs or connected MWSFs with different properties and/or different post-processing methods (such as, different sizes, different compositions, different functionality, different surface properties, different surface areas) can be mixed together in any quantity, ratio and/or combination.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced and collected, and subsequently processed by mechanical grinding, milling, and/or exfoliating. The processing (such as, by mechanical grinding, milling, exfoliating, etc.) can reduce the average size of the particles. The processing (such as, by mechanical grinding, milling, exfoliating, etc.) increases the average surface area of the particles. The processing by mechanical grinding, milling and/or exfoliation shears off some fraction of the carbon layers, producing sheets of graphite mixed with the carbon nanoparticles.

The mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill, a planetary mill, a rod mill, a shear mixer, a high-shear granulator, an autogenous mill, or other types of machining used to break solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. The mechanical grinding, milling and/or exfoliating is performed wet or dry. The mechanical grinding is performed by grinding for some period of time, then idling for some period of time, and repeating the grinding and idling for a number of cycles. The grinding period is from 1 minute (min) to 20 mins, or from 1 min to 10 mins, or from 3 mins to 8 mins, or approximately 3 mins, or approximately 8 mins. The idling period is from 1 min to 10 mins, or approximately 5 mins, or approximately 6 mins. The number of grinding and idling cycles is from 1 min to 100 mins, or from 5 mins to 100 mins, or from 10 mins to 100 mins, or from 5 mins to 10 mins, or from 5 mins to 20 mins. The total amount of time of grinding and idling is from 10 mins to 1,200 mins, or from 10 mins to 600 mins, or from 10 mins to 240 mins, or from 10 mins to 120 mins, or from 100 mins to 90 mins, or from 10 mins to 60 mins, or approximately 90 mins, or approximately mins minutes.

The grinding steps in the cycle are performed by rotating a mill in one direction for a first cycle (such as, clockwise), and then rotating a mill in the opposite direction (such as, counterclockwise) for the next cycle. The mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill, and the grinding steps are performed using a rotation speed from 100 to 1000 rpm, or from 100 to 500 rpm, or approximately 400 rpm. The mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill that uses a milling media with a diameter from 0.1 mm to 20 mm, or from 0.1 mm to 10 mm, or from 1 mm to 10 mm, or approximately 0.1 mm, or approximately 1 mm, or approximately 10 mm. The mechanical grinding or milling is performed using a ball mill that uses a milling media composed of metal such as steel, an oxide such as zirconium oxide (zirconia), yttria stabilized zirconium oxide, silica, alumina, magnesium oxide, or other hard materials such as silicon carbide or tungsten carbide.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced and collected, and subsequently processed using elevated temperatures such as thermal annealing or sintering. The processing using elevated temperatures is done in an inert environment such as nitrogen or argon. The processing using elevated temperatures is done at atmospheric pressure, or under vacuum, or at low pressure. The processing using elevated temperatures is done at a temperature from 500° C. to 2,500° C., or from 500° C. to 1,500° C., or from 800° C. to 1,500° C., or from 800° C. to 1,200° C., or from 800° C. to 1,000° C., or from 2,000° C. to 2,400° C., or approximately 8,00° C., or approximately 1,000° C., or approximately 1,500° C., or approximately 2,000° C., or approximately 2,400° C.

The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are produced and collected, and subsequently, in post processing operations, additional elements or compounds are added to the carbon nanoparticles, thereby incorporating the unique properties of the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates into other mixtures of materials.

Either before or after post-processing, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are added to solids, liquids or slurries of other elements or compounds to form additional mixtures of materials incorporating the unique properties of the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates. The carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are mixed with other solid particles, polymers, or other materials.

Either before or after post-processing, the carbon nanoparticles and aggregates described herein are used in various applications beyond applications pertaining to making and using resonant materials. Such applications including but not limited to transportation applications (such as, automobile and truck tires, couplings, mounts, elastomeric “o”-rings, hoses, sealants, grommets, etc.) and industrial applications (such as, rubber additives, functionalized additives for polymeric materials, additives for epoxies, etc.).

FIGS. 18A and 18B show transmission electron microscope (TEM) images of as-synthesized carbon nanoparticles. The carbon nanoparticles of FIG. 18A (at a first magnification) and FIG. 18B (at a second magnification) contain connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) with graphene layers that coat the connected MWSFs. The ratio of MWSF to graphene allotropes in this example is approximately 80% due to the relatively short resonance times. The MWSFs in FIG. 18B are approximately 5 nm to 10 nm in diameter, and the diameter can be from 5 nm to 500 nm using the conditions described above. The average diameter across the MWSFs is in a range from 5 nm to 500 nm, or from 5 nm to 250 nm, or from 5 nm to 100 nm, or from 5 nm to 50 nm, or from 10 nm to 500 nm, or from 10 nm to 250 nm, or from 10 nm to 100 nm, or from 10 nm to 50 nm, or from 40 nm to 500 nm, or from 40 nm to 250 nm, or from 40 nm to 100 nm, or from 50 nm to 500 nm, or from 50 nm to 250 nm, or from 50 nm to 100 nm. No catalyst was used in this process, and therefore, there is no central seed containing contaminants. The aggregate particles produced in this example had a particle size of approximately 10 μm to 100 μm, or approximately 10 μm to 500 μm.

FIG. 18C shows the Raman spectrum of the as-synthesized aggregates in this example taken with 532 nm incident light. The I_(D)/I_(G) for the aggregates produced in this example is from approximately 0.99 to 1.03, indicating that the aggregates were composed of carbon allotropes with a high degree of order.

FIG. 18D and FIG. 18E show example TEM images of the carbon nanoparticles after size reduction by grinding in a ball mill. The ball milling was performed in cycles with a 3-minute (min) counter-clockwise grinding operation, followed by a 6 min idle operation, followed by a 3-min clockwise grinding operation, followed by a 6-min idle operation. The grinding operations were performed using a rotation speed of 400 rpm. The milling media was zirconia and ranged in size from 0.1 mm to 10 mm. The total size reduction processing time was from 60 mins to 120 mins. After size reduction, the aggregate particles produced in this example had a particle size of approximately 1 μm to 5 μm. The carbon nanoparticles after size reduction are connected MWSFs with layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs.

FIG. 18F shows a Raman spectrum from these aggregates after size reduction taken with a 532 nm incident light. The I_(D)/I_(G) for the aggregate particles in this example after size reduction is approximately 1.04. Additionally, the particles after size reduction had a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area of approximately 40 m²/g to 50 m²/g.

The purity of the aggregates produced in this sample were measured using mass spectrometry and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. The ratio of carbon to other elements, except for hydrogen, measured in 16 different batches was from 99.86% to 99.98%, with an average of 99.94% carbon.

In this example, carbon nanoparticles were generated using a thermal hot-wire processing system. The precursor material was methane, which was flowed from 1 slm to 5 slm. With these flow rates and the tool geometry, the resonance time of the gas in the reaction chamber was from approximately 20 second to 30 seconds, and the carbon particle production rate was from approximately 20 g/hr.

Further details pertaining to such a processing system can be found in the previously mentioned U.S. Pat. No. 9,862,602, titled “CRACKING OF A PROCESS GAS.”

EXAMPLES Example 1

FIG. 18G (shown enlarged as FIG. 15 ), FIG. 18H (shown enlarged as FIG. 16 ) and FIG. 18I (shown enlarged as FIG. 17 ) show TEM images of as-synthesized carbon nanoparticles of this example. The carbon nanoparticles contain connected multi-walled spherical fullerenes (MWSFs) with layers of graphene coating the connected MWSFs. The ratio of multi-walled fullerenes to graphene allotropes in this example is approximately 30% due to the relatively long resonance times allowing thicker, or more, layers of graphene to coat the MWSFs. No catalyst was used in this process, and therefore, there is no central seed containing contaminants. The as-synthesized aggregate particles produced in this example had particle sizes of approximately 10 μm to 500 μm. FIG. 18J shows a Raman spectrum from the aggregates of this example. The Raman signature of the as-synthesized particles in this example is indicative of the thicker graphene layers which coat the MWSFs in the as-synthesized material. Additionally, the as-synthesized particles had a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area of approximately 90 m²/g to 100 m²/g.

Example 2

FIG. 18K and FIG. 18L show TEM images of the carbon nanoparticles of this example. Specifically, the images depict the carbon nanoparticles after performance of size reduction by grinding in a ball mill. The size reduction process conditions were the same as those described as pertains to the foregoing FIG. 18G through FIG. 18J. After size reduction, the aggregate particles produced in this example had a particle size of approximately 1 μm to 5 μm. The TEM images show that the connected MWSFs that were buried in the graphene coating can be observed after size reduction. FIG. 18M shows a Raman spectrum from the aggregates of this example after size reduction taken with 532 nm incident light. The I_(D)/I_(G) for the aggregate particles in this example after size reduction is approximately 1, indicating that the connected MWSFs that were buried in the graphene coating as-synthesized had become detectable in Raman after size reduction, and were well ordered. The particles after size reduction had a Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) specific surface area of approximately 90 m²/g to 100 m²/g.

Example 3

FIG. 18N is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of carbon aggregates showing the graphite and graphene allotropes at a first magnification. FIG. 18O is a SEM image of carbon aggregates showing the graphite and graphene allotropes at a second magnification. The layered graphene is clearly shown within the distortion (wrinkles) of the carbon. The 3D structure of the carbon allotropes is also visible.

The particle size distribution of the carbon particles of FIG. 18N and FIG. 18O is shown in FIG. 18P. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1806 corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q³(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass particle size distribution 1808 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ³(x) [%]). The median particle size is approximately 33 μm. The 10th percentile particle size is approximately 9 μm, and the 90th percentile particle size is approximately 103 μm. The mass density of the particles is approximately 10 g/L.

Example 4

The particle size distribution of the carbon particles captured from a multiple-stage reactor is shown in FIG. 18Q. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1814 corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q³(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass particle size distribution 1816 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ³(x) [%]). The median particle size captured is approximately 11 μm. The 10th percentile particle size is approximately 3.5 μm, and the 90th percentile particle size is approximately 21 μm. The graph in FIG. 18Q also shows the number basis cumulative particle size distribution 1818 corresponding to the left y-axis in the graph (Q⁰(x) [%]). The median particle size by number basis is from approximately 0.1 μm to approximately 0.2 μm.

Returning to the discussion of FIG. 18P, the graph also shows a second set of example results. Specifically, in this example, the particles were size-reduced by mechanical grinding, and then the size-reduced particles were processed using a cyclone separator. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 410 of the size-reduced carbon particles captured in this example corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q³(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass basis particle size distribution 412 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ³(x) [%]). The median particle size of the size-reduced carbon particles captured in this example is approximately 6 μm. The 10th percentile particle size is from 1 μm to 2 μm, and the 90th percentile particle size is from 10 μm to 20 μm.

Further details pertaining to making and using cyclone separators can be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/725,928, filed Oct. 5, 2017, titled “MICROWAVE REACTOR SYSTEM WITH GAS-SOLIDS SEPARATION”, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In some cases, carbon particles and aggregates containing graphite, graphene and amorphous carbon can be generated using a microwave plasma reactor system using a precursor material that contains methane, or contains isopropyl alcohol (IPA), or contains ethanol, or contains a condensed hydrocarbon (such as, hexane). In some other examples, the carbon-containing precursors are optionally mixed with a supply gas (such as, argon). The particles produced in this example contained graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, and no seed particles. The particles in this example had a ratio of carbon to other elements (other than hydrogen) of approximately 99.5% or greater.

In one particular example, a hydrocarbon was the input material for the microwave plasma reactor, and the separated outputs of the reactor comprised hydrogen gas and carbon particles containing graphite, graphene, and amorphous carbon. The carbon particles were separated from the hydrogen gas in a multi-stage gas-solid separation system. The solids loading of the separated outputs from the reactor was from 0.001 g/L to 2.5 g/L.

Example 5

FIG. 18R, FIG. 18S, and FIG. 18T are TEM images of as-synthesized carbon nanoparticles. The images show examples of graphite, graphene, and amorphous carbon allotropes. The layers of graphene and other carbon materials can be clearly seen in the images.

The particle size distribution of the carbon particles captured is shown in FIG. 18U. The mass basis cumulative particle size distribution 1820 corresponds to the left y-axis in the graph (Q³(x) [%]). The histogram of the mass particle size distribution 1822 corresponds to the right axis in the graph (dQ³(x) [%]). The median particle size captured in the cyclone separator in this example was approximately 14 μm. The 10th percentile particle size was approximately 5 μm, and the 90th percentile particle size was approximately 28 μm. The graph in FIG. 18U also shows the number basis cumulative particle size distribution 424 corresponding to the left y-axis in the graph (Q° (x) [%]). The median particle size by number basis in this example was from approximately 0.1 μm to approximately 0.2 μm.

FIG. 18V, FIG. 18W, and FIGS. 18X, and 18X are images that show three-dimensional carbon-containing structures that are grown onto other three-dimensional structures. FIG. 18V is a 100× magnification of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers, whereas FIG. 18W is a 200× magnification of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers. FIG. 18X is a 1601× magnification of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers. The three-dimensional carbon growth over the fiber surface is shown. FIG. 18Y is a 10000× magnification of three-dimensional carbon structures grown onto carbon fibers. The image depicts growth onto the basal plane as well as onto edge planes.

More specifically, FIGS. 18V-18Y show example SEM images of 3D carbon materials grown onto fibers using plasma energy from a microwave plasma reactor as well as thermal energy from a thermal reactor. FIG. 18V shows an SEM image of intersecting fiber 1831 and fiber 1832 with 3D carbon material 1830 grown on the surface of the fibers. FIG. 18W is a higher magnification image (the scale bar is 300 μm compared to 500 μm for FIG. 18V) showing the 3D carbon material 1830 on the fiber 1832. FIG. 18X is a further magnified view (scale bar is 40 μm) showing the 3D carbon material 1830 on fiber surface 1835, where the 3D nature of the 3D carbon material 1830 can be clearly seen. FIG. 18Y shows a close-up view (scale bar is 500 nm) of the carbon alone, showing interconnection between basal planes of the fiber 1832 and edge planes 1834 of numerous sub-particles of the 3D carbon material grown on the fiber. FIGS. 18V-18Y demonstrate the ability to grow 3D carbon on a 3D fiber structure, such as 3D carbon growth grown on a 3D carbon fiber.

3D carbon growth on fibers can be achieved by introducing a plurality of fibers into the microwave plasma reactor and using plasma in the microwave reactor to etch the fibers. The etching creates nucleation sites such that when carbon particles and sub-particles are created by hydrocarbon disassociation in the reactor, growth of 3D carbon structures is initiated at these nucleation sites. The direct growth of the 3D carbon structures on the fibers, which themselves are three-dimensional in nature, provides a highly integrated, 3D structure with pores into which resin can permeate. This 3D reinforcement matrix (including the 3D carbon structures integrated with high aspect ratio reinforcing fibers) for a resin composite results in enhanced material properties, such as tensile strength and shear, compared to composites with conventional fibers that have smooth surfaces, and which smooth surfaces typically delaminate from the resin matrix.

Carbon materials, such as any one or more of the 3D carbon materials described herein, can have one or more exposed surfaces prepared for functionalization, such as that to promote adhesion and/or add elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, silicon, or hardening agents. Functionalization refers to the addition of functional groups to a compound by chemical synthesis. In materials science, functionalization can be employed to achieve desired surface properties; for instance, functional groups can also be used to covalently link functional molecules to the surfaces of chemical devices. The carbon materials can be functionalized in-situ—that is, on site within the same reactor in which the carbon materials are produced. The carbon materials can be functionalized in post-processing. For example, the surfaces of fullerenes or graphene can be functionalized with oxygen- or nitrogen-containing species which form bonds with polymers of the resin matrix, thus improving adhesion and providing strong binding to enhance the strength of composites.

Functionalizing surface treatments can be performed on any one or more of the disclosed carbon-based materials (such as, CNTs, CNO, graphene, 3D carbon materials such as 3D graphene) utilizing plasma reactors (such as, microwave plasma reactors) described herein. Such treatments can include in-situ surface treatment during creation of carbon materials that can be combined with a binder or polymer in a composite material, or surface treatment after creation of the carbon materials while the carbon materials are still within the reactor.

Some of the foregoing embodiments include resonators that include a plurality of three-dimensional (3D) aggregates formed of carbon-containing material that is embedded within a ply or plies of tire. However, some embodiments include resonators that are printed or otherwise disposed on an inner surface of a tire (e.g., on an inner liner of the tire).

In the foregoing specification, the disclosure has been described with reference to specific implementations thereof. It will however be evident that various modifications and changes may be made thereto without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the disclosure. For example, the above-described process flows are described with reference to an ordering of process actions. However, the ordering of many of the described process actions may be changed without affecting the scope or operation of the disclosure. The specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative sense rather than in a restrictive sense. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A tire including a tire body formed of one or more tire plies, each tire ply including a temperature sensor configured to detect a temperature of the respective tire ply, the temperature sensor comprising: a ceramic material organized as a matrix; one or more split-ring resonators (SRRs), each SRR having a natural resonance frequency configured to shift in response to one or more of a change in an elastomeric property or a change in temperature of the respective tire ply; and an electrically-conductive layer dielectrically separated from the one or more SRRs.
 2. The tire of claim 1, wherein a thickness each SRR is approximately between 0.1 micrometers (μm) and 100 μm.
 3. The tire of claim 1, wherein the one or more SRRs comprise a first SRR including a plurality of first carbon particles configured to uniquely resonate in response to an electromagnetic ping based at least in part on a concentration level of the first carbon particles within the first SRR.
 4. The tire of claim 3, wherein the one or more SRRs further comprise a second SRR adjacent to the first SRR and including a plurality of second carbon particles configured to uniquely resonate in response to the electromagnetic ping based at least in part on a concentration level of the second carbon particles within the second SRR.
 5. The tire of claim 4, wherein the first carbon particles include first aggregates forming a first porous structure, and the second carbon particles include second aggregates forming a second porous structure.
 6. The tire of claim 5, wherein the first and second porous structures comprise mesoscale structuring.
 7. The tire of claim 4, wherein the first SRR and the second SRR are three-dimensionally (3D) printed onto a surface of the respective tire ply.
 8. The tire of claim 4, wherein the first SRR is configured to resonate at a first frequency in response to the electromagnetic ping, and the second SRR is configured to resonate at a second frequency in response to the electromagnetic ping, the first frequency different than the second frequency.
 9. The tire of claim 8, wherein each of the first frequency and the second frequency is associated with an encoded serial number.
 10. The tire of claim 8, wherein an amplitude of resonance of the first SRR or the second SRR is indicative of an extent of wear of the respective tire ply.
 11. The tire of claim 4, wherein an extent of shift of the natural resonance frequency of the first SRR and the second SRR in response to the electromagnetic ping is indicative of an amount of deformation of the respective tire ply.
 12. The tire of claim 4, wherein each of the first SRR and the second SRR has an attenuation point.
 13. The tire of claim 12, wherein the attenuation point of each the first SRR and the second SRR is associated with a frequency response to the electromagnetic ping.
 14. The tire of claim 4, wherein each of the first carbon particles and second carbon particles is chemically bonded with the respective tire ply.
 15. The tire of claim 4, wherein each of the first SRR and the second SRR has a principal dimension associated with one or more of an S-parameter or a frequency of the electromagnetic ping.
 16. The tire of claim 4, wherein at least one of the first SRR or the second SRR has one of an oval shape, an elliptical shape, a rectangular shape, a square shape, a circle shape, or a curved line.
 17. The tire of claim 4, wherein one or more of the first SRR or the second SRR comprises a cylindrical SRR.
 18. The tire of claim 4, wherein the first SRR is positioned outside the second SRR.
 19. The tire of claim 4, wherein the first SRR and the second SRR are disposed within an inner liner of the tire.
 20. The tire of claim 4, further comprising a treaded side, one or more of the plurality of SRRs disposed within a vicinity of the treaded side of the tire.
 21. The tire of claim 4, wherein each of the first SRR and the second SRR has a negative effective permeability.
 22. The tire of claim 4, wherein each of the first SRR and the second SRR includes one or more of electrically-conducting materials, metals, electrically-conducting non-metals, dielectric materials, or semiconducting materials.
 23. The tire of claim 4, wherein the first SRR and the second SRR are configured as a pair of concentric rings.
 24. A temperature sensor configured to detect a temperature of a tire ply, the temperature sensor comprising: a ceramic material organized as a matrix; one or more split-ring resonators (SRRs), each SRR having a natural resonance frequency configured to shift in response to one or more of a change in an elastomeric property or a change in the temperature of the tire ply; and an electrically-conductive layer dielectrically separated from the one or more SRRs. 